mm 


gv/Eiv. 


wm 


-!  ^  ■■%.*  ■'.  fewy^yj.^-V*  y^-: 

. .  -  -v  •'■.  ■ 

,^'fcr^y*  •  .-►X  J^*?v  rsfW  &  *>i 

IS'  .  .-.*...  r  -vT  •  •  -  .  ■•£'■•-  <•  :  w 


H»}»  -***>, 


£«£ 


*&■ :. 

•‘^v; 

sfcv5&’ 

*v*  .;> 

.'*«.•>•“»■*•  .„’  .«  4''vii'rT - 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

library 


Class 

-T15 

Ja09-20M 


Book  Volume 


PRIVATE  LIBRARY. 


J.  E.  TWITCHEEL. 


/y . 


#rS 


» 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https  i/Zarchive-org/details/princtplesoflatiOObulLO 


THE 


PRINCIPLES 

OF 

LATIN  GRAMMAR; 


COMPRISING  THE  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  MOST  APPROVED 
GRAMMARS  F.XTANT,  WITH  AN 


APPENDIX. 


FOR  THE 

USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


By  Rev.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  ALBANY  ACADEMY;  AUTHOR  OF  THE  SERIES 
OF  GRAMMARS,  GREEK,  LATIN.  AND  ENGLISH,  ON  THE 
SAME  PLAN,  ETC.  ETC. 


PORTY-SECOND  EDITION. 


NEW-YORK : 

PRATT,  WOODFORD  &  COMPANY, 

159  PEARL  STREET. 


1  8  5  1  . 


7$ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1846,  by 

PETER  BULLIONS. 

in  the  Clerks  Office  of  the  Northern  District  of  New- York. 


^  caet*  &§  F I  o 


PREFACE. 


In  the  study  of  any  language,  the  foundation  of  success 
must  be  laid  in  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  its  principles. 
This  being  once  attained,  future  progress  becomes  easy 
and  rapid.  To  the  student  of  language,  therefore,  a  good 
Grammar,  which  must  be  his  constant  companion,  is  of  all 
his  books  the  most  important,  Such  a  work,  to  be  really 
valuable,  ought  to  be  simple  in  its  arrangement  and  style,  so 
as  to  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth,  for  whose  use  it  is 
designed ;  comprehensive ,  and  accurate ,  so  as  to  be  a  suffi¬ 
cient  and  certain  guide  in  the  most  difficult  as  well  as  in  easy 
cases ;  and  its  principles  and  rules  should  be  rendered  fami¬ 
liar  by  numerous  examples  and  exercises. 

The  fundamental  principles  are  nearly  the  same  in  all  lan¬ 
guages.  So  far  as  Grammar  is  concerned,  the  difference  lies 
chiefly  in  the  minor  details — in  the  forms  and  inflections  of 
their  words,  and  in  the  modes  of  expression  peculiar  to  each, 
usually  denominated  idioms.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  to 
be  proper,  in  constructing  Grammars  for  different  languages, 
that  the  principles,  so  far  as  they  are  the  same,  should  be  ar- 
0  ranged  in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  as  nearly  as  possible 
J>  in  the  same  words.  Where  this  is  carefully  done,  the  study 
of  the  Grammar  of  one  language  becomes  an  important  aid  in 
the  study  of  another  ; — an  opportunity  is  afforded  of  seeing 
wherein  they  agree,  and  wherein  they  differ,  and  a  profitable 
exercise  is  furnished  in  comparative  or  general  grammar. 
But  when  a  Latin  Grammar  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  stu¬ 
dent,  differing  widely  in  its  arrangement  or  phraseology  from 
the  English  Grammar  which  he  had  previously  studied,  and 
afterwards  a  Greek  Grammar  different  from  both,  not  only  is 
the  benefit  derived  from  the  analogy  of  the  different  langua¬ 
ges  in  a  great  measure  lost,  but  the  whole  subject  is  made  to 
appear  intolerably  intricate  and  mysterious.  In  order  to  re¬ 
medy  this  evil,  I  resolved,  more  than  ten  years  ago,  to  pre¬ 
pare  a  series  of  grammars,  English,  Latin  and  Greek,  ar¬ 
ranged  in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  in  as  nearly  the 


IV 


PREFACE. 


same  words  as  the  peculiarities  of  the  languages  would  per¬ 
mit  In  the  prosecution  of  this  purpose,  a  Greek  and  an 
English  grammar  have  been  already  published,  and  the  Latin, 
which  completes  the  series,  is  now  ready  to  follow  them. 

The  work  here  presented  to  the  public,  is  upon  the  foun¬ 
dation  of  Adam’s  Latin  Grammar,  so  long  and  so  well 
known  as  a  text  book  in  this  country.  Since  the  first  publi¬ 
cation  of  that  excellent  work,  however,  now  more  than  fifty 
years  ago,  great  advances  have  been  made  in  the  science  of 
philology,  both  in  Germany  and  Britain,  and  many  improve¬ 
ments  have  been  introduced  in  the  mode  of  instruction, 
none  of  which  appear  in  that  work.  The  object  of  the  pre¬ 
sent  undertaking  was,  to  combine  with  all  that  is  excellent 
in  the  work  of  Adam,  the  many  important  results  of  sub¬ 
sequent  labors  in  this  field ;  to  supply  its  defects ;  to  bring 
the  whole  up  to  that  point  which  the  present  state  of  classi¬ 
cal  learning  requires,  and  to  give  it  such  a  form  as  to  render 
it  a  suitable  part  of  the  series  formerly  projected.  In  accom¬ 
plishing  this  object,  I  have  availed  myself  of  every  aid  within 
my  reach,  and  no  pains  has  been  spared  to  render  this 
work  as  complete  as  possible  in  every  part.  My  acknow¬ 
ledgements  are  due  for  the  assistance  derived  from  the  excel¬ 
lent  works  of  Grant,  Crombie,  Zumpt,  Andrews  &  Stoddard 
and  many  others,  on  the  whole  or  on  separate  parts  of  this 
undertaking;  and  also  for  many  hints  kindly  furnished  by 
distinguished  teachers  in  this  country.  With  the  exception 
of  a  few  pages,  the  whole  of  this  work  has  been  written 
anew.  The  additions  and  improvements  made  in  every  part, 
it  is  impossible  here  to  specify.  The  intelligent  teacher 
will  discover  these,  and  judge  of  them  for  himself.  In  the 
typography  of  the  work,  neatness  and  accuracy  have  been 
aimed  at,  and,  it  is  hoped,  in  a  good  degree  attained.  As  in 
the  other  grammars,  the  rules  and  leading  parts  which  should 
be  first  studied,  are  printed  in  larger  type  ;  and  the  filling 
up  of  this  outline  is  comprised  in  observations  and  notes  un¬ 
der  them,  made  easy  of  reference  by  the  sections  and  num¬ 
bers  prefixed.  The  whole  is  now  committed,  together  with 
the  rest  of  the  series,  to  the  judgment  of  an  intelligent  pub¬ 
lic,  in  the  hope  that  something  has  been  done  to  smooth  the 
path  of  the  learner  in  the  successful  prosecution  of  his  stu¬ 
dies,  and  to  subserve  the  interests  both  of  English  and  Classi¬ 
cal  literature  in  this  country. 

Albany  Academy ,  Aug.  20 tk,  1841. 


INDEX. 


A. 

PAGE 


Ablative,  meaning  of, .  10 

governed  by  nouns,  225 
by  adjectives  . . .  226 

by  comp,  degree,  227 

by  verbs, .  228 

by  adverbs, .  242 

by  passive,  verbs  234 

variously, .  229 

Accidents  of  the  noun,  ....  8 

Accusative,  meaning  of . . . .  10 

governed  by  verbs .  223 

by  passive  verbs,. . . .  234 

by  prepositions. .  ,243,  244 

variously, .  225 

and  genitive, .  229 

and  dative .  231 

and  accusative .  232 

and  ablative .  233 

Adjectives, .  44 

of  first  and  second  decl.  45 

of  third, .  47 

irregular, .  51 

exercises  on, .  53 

comparison  of, .  59 

Rules  for, .  60 

irregular,  &c .  61 

derivation  of .  63 

numeral, .  53 

cardinal, . . .  54 

ordinal, .  57 

construction  of, .  197 

Adverbs,  signification  of,..  185 

derivation  of, .  186 

comparison  of, .  187 

construction  of, .  241 

cases  governed  by, ... .  242 

Analysis  or  resolution,  ....  269 

Apposition, .  196 

Archaism,  .  266 

Arrangement,  Latin,  .  266 


B. 

PAGE 


Beginners,  directions  for,. .  270 

C. 

Case, .  9 

Synopsis  of  government  of,  194 

Caesural  pause, .  293 

Cause,  manner  and  instru¬ 
ment, .  236 

Circumstances,  construc¬ 
tion  of,  235 

of  limitation, .  235 

of  cause,  manner, &c.  236 

of  place, .  237 

of  time, .  239 

of  measure, .  240 

of  price, .  241 

Concord  of, .  196 

Conjugation  of, .  100 

First,. .  110 

irregular, .  156 

Second, .  119 

irregular, .  157 

Third, .  127 

irregular, .  160 

Fourth, .  136 

irregular, .....  168 

1st  Periphrastic,. . . .  152 

2d  do.  _  153 

Conjunctions, . . .  192 

construction  of,  ....  264 

Consonants, .  2 

Construing,  Rules  for, .  271 

D. 

Dative,  meaning  of, .  10 

governed  by  nouns,. .. .  215 

by  adjectives, .  215 

by  verbs, .  217 

by  impersonals,. .  .  220 

by  the  pass,  voice,  234 
variously, .  22? 


INDEX 


V* 


PAGE 

Datives  two,  gov  d  by  verbs,  222 
Declension,  Rules  for,. .. .  10,  11 


First, .  12 

Greek  nouns  in,  13 
Exercises  on. .. .  14 

Second, .  15 

Exceptions  in,. .  17 

Greek  nouns  in,  18 
Exercises  on,. .  .  18 

Third,  . .  19 

Exercises  on,. .  .  23 

Genders  in,....  23 

Genitive  of,....  24 

Exceptions  in,. .  26 

Greek  nouns  in,  30 

Fourth,  .  30 

Exceptions  in,. .  31 

Exercises  on, ...  32 

Fifth, .  32 

Exercises  on,. .  .  33 

Deponent  verbs, .  144 

irregular, .  169 

Derivatives  and  compounds, 

quantity  of, .  289 

special  rules  for,. . . .  288 

E 

Ellipsis, .  265 

Enallage, .  265 

Etymology, .  6 

F. 

Feet,  simple, .  290 

compound, .  291 

isochronous, .  291 

G. 

Gender  of, .  8 

Observations  on,  ...  9 

Genitive,  meaning  of, .  10 

gov’d  by  nouns, .  207 

by  adjectives,. .  .  210 

by  verbs, .  213 

by  passives,  ....  234 

variously, .  214 

Gerunds  and  Supines, .  99 

construction  of, .  260 

Gerundives, .  98 

construction  of, ... .  262 

K. 

Hellenism, .  266 

Hyperbaton, .  266 

I. 

increment  of  nouns, .  268 

of  the  2d  dec!.. .  279 


PAGE 


Increment  of  the  3d  deck. .  279 

of  the  plura^  . .  280 

of  the  verb,....  281 

Interjections, .  191 

construction  of, .  225 

Irregular  nouns, .  34 

adjectives, .  51 

comparison, .  61 

Verbs, .  170 

L. 

Letters, .  1 

Limitation,  circumstances  of  235 

M. 

Marks  and  characters, .  2 

Measure,  circumstances  of.  241 

Metre,  .  293 

different  kinds  of, ... .  294 

Iambic, .  294 

Trochaic, .  295 

Anapaestic, .  295 

Dactylic, .  296 

Choriambic, .  297 

Ionic, .  298 

Metres,  compound, .  299 

Metres,  combination  of,  in 

Horace, .  301 

Metrical  Key  to  Odes  of 

Horace,  .  302 

Moods, .  81 

Indie,  tenses  of, .  85 


construction  of, . .  246 

Subjunctive,  tenses  of,  89 
construction  of,  ...  246 

with  conjunctions,  247 
with  relative,  . . .  248 

used  for  imperative,  84 
Imperative,  tenses  of,  92 
construction  of, . . .  253 

Infinitive,  tenses  of,.  93 
construction  of, . . .  253 

without  a  subject,  254 
with  a  subject,  .  256 

N. 

Negatives,  construction  of,.  241 


Nominative,  meaning  of,. .  10 

construction  of, .  203 

after  the  verb,. .. .  205 

Notation  of  numbers, .  56 

Nouns,  .  7 

Accidents  of, .  8 

irregular, .  34 

defective, .  39 


INDEX.  vii 


PAGE. 


Nouns,  redundant, .  40 

Syntax  of, .  i07 

increment  of, .  27S 

Number, .  8 

Numeral  adjectives, .  53 

O. 

Orthography, .  1 

P. 

Parsing,  directions  for, ....  273 

Participles  of, .  97 

construction  of,...  258 

case  absolute,  ....  259 

Parts  of  speech, .  7 

Person, .  65 

Person,  and  number  of,. . . .  96 

Place,  circumstances  of,...  237 

Pleonasm, . 265 

Prepositions  of, .  188 

in  composition, .  190 

inseparable, . .  191 


governing  the  accusa¬ 
tive,.  .  243 

the  ablative,  243 
the  acc.  and 

ablative,  244 
in  composi¬ 


tion, .  244 

Price,  circumstances  of,. . . .  241 

Pronouns,  Personal, .  64 

Adjective, .  67 

Possessive, .  67 

Demonstrative, .  68 

Definite, .  71 

Relative, .  71 

construction  of, . . .  200 

case  of, .  202 

Interrogative, .  72 

Indefinite, .  73 

Patrial, .  73 

compound, .  73 

Pronunciation .  3 

Prosody, .  276 

F igures  of, .  299 

Punctuation, .  3 

.  Q. 

Quantity,  of, .  276 


General  rules  for,.. .  276 

Special  rules  for,  . . .  278 

of  penult  syllables,  .  282 

of  final  syllables,  . . .  284 

R. 

Resolution  or  analysis,  ....  261 

Examples  of, .  297 


S. 

PAGE. 


Scanning, .  299 

Stanza, .  301 

Supines  of, .  99 

Construction  of,  ....  263 

Syllables, . 5 

Syntax, . . 193 

General  principles  of,  193 
of  cases,  Synopsis  of,  194 

Parts  of, .  196 

of  the  Noun, .  207 

of  the  verb, .  245 

Figures  of, .  265 

T. 

Tenses  of, .  84 

of  the  indicative,  .. .  85 

subjunctive,..  89 
imperative,  . .  92 

infinitive,  ....  93 

participles,...  97 
Active  how  formed,.  102 
Passive,  how  formed,  104 

Connexion  of, .  245 

Terminations,  table  of,....  11 

Time,  circumstances  of,...  239 

y. 

Verb,  Active,  Neuter, . 76,77 

Different  kinds  of,  . .  78 

Inflection  of, .  79 

Voices,  of, .  80 

Moods  of, .  81 

Tenses  of, .  84 

how  formed, ....  102 


Regular,  conjugation  of,  100 
1st  conj.  Active,  .  110 

Exercises  on..  113 
1st  conj.  Passive,.  114 
Exercises  on,.  117 
2d  conj.  Active,..  119 
Exercises  on,.  122 
2d  conj.  Passive,.  122 
Exercises  on,.  125 
3d  conj.  Active,. .  127 

Exercises  on,.  131 
3d  conj.  Passive,.  131 
Exercises  on,.  135 
4th  conj.  Active,  .  136 

Exercises  on,.  139 
4th  conj.  Passive,  140 
Exercises  on,.  142 
Deponent,  1st  conj.. .  144 

2d  do  ..  145 

3d  do  147 


INDEX 


▼iii 

PAGE. 


Verb,  deponent,  4th  do  . .  148 

Exercises  on, .  149 

Verbs,  Neuter-passives,. . . .  150 

compound, .  154 

irregular  in  perf.  and 

Sup .  155 

Irregular, .  170 

Sum, .  105 

Exercises  on,  109 

Defective, .  178 

Impersonal, .  180 

Exercises  on, .  182 

Redundant, .  183 

Derivatives, .  183 

Frequentatives,.  184 
Inceptives, .  184 


PAGE. 


Verbs,  Desideratives, .  185 

Diminutives, .  . .  185 

construction  of,  with 

Nom .  203 

Special  rules  for,  204 

Syntax  of, .  245 

Increment  of, .  281 

V  ersifica  lion , .  290 

Vocative,  meaning  of, .  1< 

construction  of,. .  225 

Voice, .  80 

Vowels, .  1 

Vowel  sounds,  table  of,. . . .  4 

W. 

Words, . 6 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  APPENDIX. 


I.  Roman  computation  of  time, .  304 

II.  Roman  Names, .  307 

III.  Divisions  of  the  Roman  people, .  308 

IV.  Division  of  the  Roman  civil  officers, .  309 

V.  The  Roman  Army, .  199 

VI.  Roman  Money,  Weights  and  Measures, .  310 

VII.  Different  ages  of  Roman  Literature, .  312 


ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN. 


1A 


ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN. 

For  reasons  stated  in  the  note,  §  2,  the  continental  pronunciation  of 
the  Latin  language,  as  presented  in  that  section,  is  considered  the 
best.  But  since  there  are  many  who  prefer  the  English,  or  Walke- 
rian  pronunciation,  a  brief  statement  of  the  principles  by  which  it  is 
regulated  is  here  introduced.  In  doing  this  it  is  necessary  to  state, 
and  for  the  learner  always  to  bear  in  mind,  that  the  English  accentu¬ 
ation  and  vowel  sounds  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  quantity  of  the 
syllables  as  established  by  the  rules  of  Latin  prosody.  These  indeed 
are  often  directly  opposed  to  each  other.  A  vowel  which  by  the  rules 
of  English  orthoepy  is  long,  having  both  the  accent  and  the  long  Eng¬ 
lish  sound,  is  short  in  Latin;  as,  pa -ter,  DS'-us.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  syllable  that  is  short,  being  without  the  accent  and  having  the  short 
English  sound,  is  long  in  Latin;  as,  aw" -d-bd-mus ,  mon" -e-bd-tis. 
When,  therefore,  a  vowel  is  said  to  have  the  long  sound,  or  the  short 
sound — to  be  accented  or  unaccented,  nothing  is  affirmed  respecting 
the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  as  long  or  short.  Here  indeed  there  is 
an  incongruity,  but  it  is  inseparable  from  the  system. 

According  to  this  mode  of  pronunciation,  the  sound  of  a  vowel  or 
diphthong  depends  entirely  on  two  things;  viz.,  the  accent  and  the 
place  of  the  vowel  in  the  syllable.  Again,  the  division  of  words  into 
syllables  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  place  of  the  accents; 
and  that  again  on  the  quantity  of  the  penult  syllable.  Hence  to  pre¬ 
sent  this  matter  fully  and  properly,  we  must  reverse  this  order,  and 
consider, 

I.  The  quantity  of  the  penult  syllables. 

II.  The  accent. 

III.  The  division  of  words  into  syllables;  and 

IV.  The  sounds  of  the  letters  in  their  combinations. 

For  the  division  of  letters  into  vowels  and  consonants,  the  com¬ 
bination  of  the  former  into  diphthongs,  and  the  division  of  the  latter 
into  mutes,  liquids,  &c.;  as  also  for  the  meaning  of  the  terms  mono¬ 
syllable ,  dissyllable,  &c.,  penult  and  antepenult,  and  the  marks  for 
long,  short,  and  accented  syllables,  see  §  1. 

mm  I.  THE  QUANTITY  OF  PENULT  SYLLABLES. 

For  quantity  in  general,  see  the  Rules,  §§  154-161;  and  particu¬ 
larly  for  penult  syllables,  §§  156-159.  The  following  are  general, 
being  applicable  to  other  syllables  as  well  as  the  penult,  and  are  of 
extensive  application: 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short ;  as,  via,  deus. 

2.  A  vowel  before  two  consonants,  or  a  double  conso¬ 
nant  is  long  by  position  ;  as,  arma ,  fallo,  axis. 

3.  A  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  liquid,  ( l  and  r ,)  is  com¬ 
mon;  i.  e.,  either  long  or  short;  as,  volucris ,  or  volucris. 

4.  A  diphthong  is  always  long  ;  as,  Ccesar,  aurum. 

Note.  When  the  quantity  of  the  penult  is  determined  by  any  of 
these  rules,  it  is  not  marked;  otherwise  it  is  marked. 


X 


ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN. 


II.  THE  ACCENT. 

Accent  is  a  particular  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  particular 
syllable  of  a  word,  and  marked  (  ' ) ;  as,  pa'-ter,  an'-i-mus, 
Its  place  is  on  the  penult  or  antepenult. 

When  a  word  has  more  accents  than  one,  the  last  is  called  the  pri¬ 
mary  accent,  the  one  preceding  it  the  secondary ,  marked  (");  pre¬ 
ceding  that  is  often  a  third ,  marked  ( ) ;  and  sometimes  even  a 
fourth ,  marked  ( ;  and  all  of  them  subject  to  the  same  rules,'  as 
follows: 

RULES. 

1.  Words  of  two  syllables  have  the  accent  on  the  first  or 
penult;  as,  pa'-ter ,  mu'-sa ,  au'-rum. 

2.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables,  when  the  penult 
is’ long’,  have  the  accent  on  the  penult ;  when  the  penult  is 
short  they  have  the  accent  on  the  antepenult;  as,  a-mi'cus , 
dom'-i-nus. 

3.  When  the  enclitics  que ,  ve ,  we,  are  added  to  a  word, 
the  two  words  are  considered  as  one,  and  it  is  accented 
accordingly  ;  as,  pa-ter’-que ,  am" -i  -  cits’ -ne,  doin'  '-i-nus’-ve. 

4.  If  only  two  syllables  precede  the  primary  accent,  the 
secondary  accent  is  placed  on  the  first;  as,  dom"-i-no’rum. 

5.  If  three  or  four  syllables  precede  the  primary  accent, 
the  secondary  is  placed  sometimes  on  the  first  and  some¬ 
times  on  the  second ;  as,  tol"-e-ra-bil'-i-us,  de-mon"stra - 
ban’-tur. 

6.  Some  words  which  have  four  syllables  before  the  pri¬ 
mary  accent,  and  all  that  have  more  than  four  have  a  third 
accent ;  and  in  longer  words  even  a.  fourth;  as,  pab' " -u-la” - 
ti-d’-nis ,  pab’/>'-u-la”’-ti-on"-i-bus’-que. 

III.  THE  DIVISION  OF  WORDS  INTO  SYLLABLES. 

In  Latin  every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  there  are 
separate  vowels  or  diphthongs.  Hence  the  following 

RULES. 

1.  Two  vowels  coming  together  and  not  forming  a  diph¬ 
thong,  must  be  divided;  as,  De’-us ,  su'-its,  au'-re-us. 

2.  A  single  consonant,  or  a  mute  and  a  liquid*  between 
the  last  two  vowels  of  a  word,  or  between  anv  two  unac- 
cented  vowels,  is  joined  to  the  last;  as,  pa’- ter,  al’-a- cer, 
aZ-a-CRis,  toV'-e-RK-bir-i-us ,  per"'-e-GRi-na"-ti-d,-ms. 

Exc.  But  tib-i  and  sib-i  join  it  to  the  first. 


*  The  liquids  are  l  and  r. 


ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN, 


21 

3.  A  single  consonant  or  a  mute  and  a  liquid  before  an 
accented  vowel,  is  joined  to  that  vowel,  and  so  also  is  a  sin¬ 
gle  consonant  after  it,  except  in  the  penult ;  as,  z-TiN'-e-rtz, 
nom.' -i-nes. 

Exc.  1.  A  single  consonant,  or  a  mute  and  a  liquid,  after  a,  e,  o, 
accented,  and  followed  by  e  or  i  before  a  vowel,  are  joined  to  the  lat¬ 
ter;  as,  so-ci-ws,  ra-m-us,  do-CE-o,  pd-mi-us. 

Exc.  2.  A  single  consonant,  or  a  mute  and  a  liquid  after  u,  accent¬ 
ed,  must  be  joined  to  the  following  vowel;  as,  mu-Li-er,  tu-n-or, 
lu-BBl-CU8. 

4.  Any  two  consonants,  except  a  mute  and  a  liquid  com¬ 
ing  before  or  after  an  accented  vowel;  and  also  a  mute  and 
a  liquid  after  an  accented  vowel,  (the  penult  and  the  excep¬ 
tions  to  Rule  3  excepted,)  must  be  divided;  as,  tem-por'-i- 
bus ,  lee' -turn,  tem'-pd-rum,  met' -ri-cus. 

Also  gl,  tl,  and  often  cl,  after  the  penultimate  vowel,  or  before  the 
vowel  of  an  accented  syllable;  as  Jlt-las,  At-lan'-ti-des,  ec-lec'-ta. 

5.  If  three  consonants  come  between  the  vowels  of  any 
two  syllables,  the  last  two,  if  a  mute  and  a  liquid,  are  joined 
to  the  latter  vowel;  otherwise,  the  last  only;  as,  con'-tra, 
am"-pli-a‘-vit;  comp'-tus.  re-demp'-tor. 

6.  A  compound  word  is  resolved  into  its  constituent  parts 
if  the  first  part  ends  with  a  consonant:  as,  ab -es’-se,  sub'-z- 
it ,  in '-i-tur,  ciRCUM'-a-go.  But  if  the  first  part  ends  with 
a  vowel,  it  is  divided  like  a  simple  word;  as,  de f'-e-ro,  ml '- 
i-go,  pr jzs'-to. 

These  rules  are  useful  here,  only  as  a  guide  to  the  pronunciation  in 
the  Walkerian  mode,  the  vowel  sounds  being  always  different  when 
they  end  a  syllable,  and  when  followed  by  a  consonant;  thus,  dil'- 
i-go  and  'press' -to  would  be  pronounced  very  differently  if  divided  thus, 
di'-li-go  and pree'-sto,  though  the  quantity  and  accent  would  be  the 
same  in  both.  It  is  therefore  manifest  that  in  order  to  correct  pro¬ 
nunciation  in  this  mode  it  is  necessary  to  be  familiar  with,  and  ready 
in  applying  the  rules  of  syllabification. 

IV.  OF  THE  SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

1.  Of  the  sound  of  the  Vowels. 

1.  Every  accented  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  has  the 
long  English  sound  ;  as  in  the  words  fate,  me,  pine,  no, 
tube ;  thus,  pa'-ter,  de'-dit ,  vi'-vus ,  to'-tus ,  tu'-ba.  Ty'-rus .* 

2.  At  the  end  of  an  unaccented  syllable,  e,  o ,  and  it,  have 
nearly  the  same  sound  as  when  accented,  but  are  sounded 
shorter;  as  re’-te,  ro’-Jo ,  ma’-nu ;  a  has  the  sound  of  a  in 
father;  as,  mu’-sa,  e-pis'-to-la. 


*  Y  h'VSltie  soiuvl  of  i  in  the  same  situation. 


xii 


ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  LATIN. 


J.  ending  an  unaccented  syllable,  has  always  its  long 
sound  in  the  following  positions  : 

1st.  In  the  end  of  a  word;  as,  dom’-i-ni.  Except  in  tib-% 
and  sib-i,  in  which  final  i  sounds  like  short  e. 

2d.  In  the  first  syllable  of  a  word  (the  second  of  which 
is  accented,)  either  when  it  stands  alone  before  a  conso¬ 
nant  ;  as,  i-do'-ne-us ,  or  ends  the  syllable  before  a  vowel ; 
as  ,fi-l‘-bam. 

In  all  other  situations  at  the  end  of  an  unaccented  sylla¬ 
ble  not  final,  i  has  an  obscure  sound  resembling  short  e; 
as,  nob'-i-lis,  rap'-i-dus ,  fi -de’-lis,  &c. 

3.  When  a  syllable  ends  with  a  consonant,  its  vowel  has 
the  short  English  sound,  as  'm  fat,  met ,  pin,  not,  tub,  sym¬ 
bol;  thus,  mag’ -nits,  reg’-num,fin’-go ,  hoc,  sub,  cyg’-nus. 

Exc.  Es  at  the  end  of  a  word,  has  the  sound  of  the  English  word 
ease;  as  fi'-des ,  ig'-nes. 

2.  Of  the  sound  of  the  Diphthongs. 

2£  and  oe  are  pronounced  as  e  in  the  same  situation ;  as, 
ce’-tas,  ccct’-e-ra,  poe’-na,  oes’-trum. 

Au  is  pronounced  like  aw , — eu  like  long  u, — and  ei,  not 
followed  by  another  vowel,  like  long  i;  as,  au’-di-o,  eu’-ge,  hei. 

Exc.  In  Greek  proper  names  au  are  separated;  as,  Men" -e-la' -us. 

Note,  ua,  ue,  ui,  uo,  and  uu,  in  one  syllable  after  q,  g,  s,  are  not 
properly  diphthongs,  but  the  u  takes  the  sound  of  w.  §  1,  Obs.  2. 

After  g  and  s  these  vowels  are  often  pronounced  separately,  or  in 
different  syllables;  as,  ar'-gu-o,  su'-a ,  su'-i ,  su'-us. 

Exc.  Ui  in  cui  and  huic ,  has  the  sound  of  i  long. 

3.  Of  the  sound  of  the  Consonants. 

The  consonants  are  in  general  pronounced  in  Latin  as  in 
English.  The  following  may  be  noticed. 

C  before  e,  i,  y,  ce,  ce,  has  the  sound  of  s;  as,  ce-do,  ci-vis,  cyg'- 
nus,  Cce’-sar ,  cce'-na;  before  a,  o,  u,  l,  r,  and  at  the  end  of  a  syl¬ 
lable  it  has  the  sound  offc;  as,  Ca-to ,  con-tra,  cur,  Clo-di-us,  Cri-to. 

Ch,  generally  has  the  sound  of  fc;  as,  char'-ta ,  chor'-da,  chro-ma. 

G  before  e,  i,  y,  ce,  ce,  has  its  soft  sound  like  j;  as,  gt'-nus,  re'-gis; 
also  before  another  g  soft;  as,  agger.  In  other  situations  it  is  hard; 
as  in  the  English  words,  bag ,  go. 

Ch  and  ph  before  th  in  the  beginning  of  a  word,  are  not  sounded; 
as,  Chthonia,  Phthia;  also  when  a  word  begins  with  mn ,  gn,  tin,  ct, 
•pt,  ps,  the  first  letter  is  silent,  or  but  slightly  sounded;  as  nine-mot’- 
y-ne,  gna-vus,  tme-sis ,  Cte-si-as.  Ptol-e-mce'-us,  psal'-lo. 

Other  consonants  in  their  combinations  resemble  so  closely  tl.rir 
sounds  in  English  words,  that  further  illustration  is  unnecessary. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


Latin  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  or  wri¬ 
ting  the  Latin  language  with  propriety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts;  namely,  Orthogra¬ 
phy ,  Etymology ,  Syntax,  and  Prosody . 


PART  FIRST. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  power  of 
letters,  and  the  correct  method  of  spelling  words. 


§  1.  OF  LETTERS. 

1.  A  Letter  is  a  character  representing  a  particular  sound  of  the 
human  voice. 

2.  The  Latin  Alphabet  consists  of  twenty-five  letters,  the  same  in 
name  and  form  as  the  English,  but  without  the  w. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

OF  VOWELS  AND  DIPHTHONGS. 

3.  A  Vowel  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  simple  sound.  The 
vowels  in  Latin  are  six,  viz  :  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y. 

4.  The  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound  is  called  a  Diphthong. 
If  the  sound  of  both  vowels  be  distinctly  heard,  it  is  called  a  Proper 
Diphthong  ;  if  not,  it  is  called  an  Improper  Diphthong. 

5.  The  Proper  Diphthongs  in  Latin  are  three,  viz  :  au,eu,ei,' 
as,  audio,  euge,  hei. 

6.  The  Improper  Diphthongs  are  two,  viz  :  ae  andoe.  These  are 
often  written  together  ;  Thus,  <c,  ce  ;  and  are  pronounced  as  simple  e 

1 


I 


S  ORTHOGRAPHY.  §  1 

Obs .  1.  Ai  and  oi  are  found  as  diphthongs  in  proper  names  from 
the  Greek  ;  as,  Maia,  Troia. 

Obs.  2.  After  g,  and  q ,  and  sometimes  after  s,  u  before  another  vow* 
el  in  the  same  syllable  does  not  form  a  diphthong  with  it,  but  is  to  be 
regarded  as  an  appendage  of  the  preceding  consonant,  having  nearly 
the  force  of  w,  as  in  the  English  words,  linguist ,  quick ,  persuade , 
thus  lingua  sanguis,  qui ,  quce ,  quod,  quum,  suadeo,  are  pronounced  as 
if  written  lingwa ,  sangwis,  kwi,  kwce,  kwod,  kwum,  swadeo. 

Obs.  3.  Two  vowels  standing  together  in  different  syllables,  pro¬ 
nounced  in  quick  succession,  resemble  the  diphthong  in  sound,  and, 
among  the  poets,  are  often  run  together  into  one  syllable  ;  thus  de-in , 
de-inde,  pro-inde ,  &c.  in  two  and  three  syllables  are  pronounced  in 
one  and  two  dein,  deinde,  proinde.  Cui  and  huic,  properly  two  sylla¬ 
bles  are  always  contracted  into  one.  So  also,  ui  in  such  words  from 
the  Greek,  as  Harpuia. 


OF  CONSONANTS. 

7.  A  Consonant  is  a  letter  that  cannot  be  sounded  without  the 
help  of  a  vowel  as  p,  b,  pronounced  pe,  be. 

8.  Of  the  Consonants,  eight  are  called  mutes ,  viz.  p,  b,  t,  d ,  c,  kt 
q,  and  g  ;  so  called  because  they  stop  the  passage  of  the  voice,  as  6 
in  sub. 

9.  Four  are  liquids,  viz.  I,  m,  n,  r,  because  they  easily  flow  into 
other  sounds. 

10.  Three  are  double  Consonants,  viz.  x,  z,  and  j  ;  of  these,  x  is 
equivalent  to  cs,  gs,  or  ks  ;  z  to  ds,  or  ts  and  j  to  dg. 

Obs.  4.  Though  j  is  sounded  by  us  as  a  double  consonant,  equiva¬ 
lent  to  dg,  yet  anciently  it  seems  to  have  been  more  nearly  allied  to 
a  vowel,  and  was  represented  by  i;  thus,  ejus  pejus ,  &c.  were  writ¬ 
ten  eius,  peius,  &c.  In  a  similar  manner,  u  and  v  were  represented 
by  the  same  letter,  viz.  v. 

11.  The  letters  represents  a  sibilant  or  hissing  sound.  The  A  is  only 
an  aspirate  and  denotes  a  rough  breathing  :  In  prosody,  it  is  not  re¬ 
garded  as  a  consonant. 

12.  The  letters  k,  y,  and  z,  are  used  only  in  words  derived  from 
the  Greek. 

MARKS  AND  CHARACTERS 

13.  The  marks  and  characters  used  in  Latin  Grammar  or  in  writing 
Latin,  are  the  following  : 

^  Placed  over  a  vowel  shews  it  to  be  short. 


§2 


PRONUNCIATION, 


3 


-  Placed  over  a  vowel  shews  it  to  be  long. 

u  Placed  over  a  vowel  shews  it  to  be  short  or  long. 

Is  called  Diaresis,  and  shows  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is 
placed  does  not  form  a  diphthong  with  the  preceding  vowel,  but  be¬ 
longs  to  a  different  syllable,  as  air  pronounced  a-cr. 

y\  The  circumflex  shews  that  the  syllable  over  which  it  stands  has 
been  contracted,  and  is  consequently  long  as  nuntiarunt  for  nuntiavc - 
runt ,  dimicassent  for  dimicavissent . 

'  The  grave  accent  is  sometimes  placed  over  particles  and  adverbs 
to  distinguish  them  from  other  words  consisting  of  the  same  letters  ; 
as  quod  a  conjunction,  “  that,”  to  distinguish  it  from  quod ,  a  rela¬ 
tive,  “which.” 

*  Apostrophe,  is  written  over  the  place  of  a  vowel  cut  off  from 
the  end  of  a  word  as  men’  for  mene. 

PUNCTUATION. 

14.  The  different  divisions  of  a  sentence  are  marked  by  certain 
characters  called  Points. 

The  modern  punctuation  in  Latin  is  the  same  as  in  English.  The 
marks  employed,  are  the  Comma  (,)■  Semicolon  (;);  Colon  (:);  Period 
(.);  Interrogation  (?);  Exclamation  (!). 

Obs.  The  only  mark  of  punctuation  used  by  the  ancients,  was  a 
point,  (.)  which  denoted  pauses  of  a  different  length,  according  as  it 
stood  at  the  top,  the  middle,  or  the  bottom  of  the  line,  that  at  the 
top  denoting  the  shortest,  and  that  at  the  bottom,  the  longest  pause. 


§  2.  PRONUNCIATION.* 

The  pronunciation  of  the  Latin  language  prevalent  among 
the  nations  of  continental  Europe,  is  greatly  preferable  to 

*  The  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  Latin  language  cannot  now  be  certainly  ascer¬ 
tained.  The  variety  of  pronunciation  in  different  nations  arises  from  a  tendency  m  all 
:o  assimilate  it  in  some  measure  to  their  own.  But  of  all  varieties,  that  of  the  English, — 
certainly  the  farthest  of  any  from  the  original, — is,  in  our  opinion,  decidedly  the  worst; 
not  only  from  its  intricacy  and  wantj  of  simplicity,  but  especially  from  its  conflicting 
constantly  with  the  settled  quantity  of  the  language.  In  English,  every  accented  sylla¬ 
ble  is  long,  and  every  unaccented  one  is  short.  When,  therefore,  according  to  the 
rules  of  English  accentuation,  the  accent  falls  on  a  short  syllable  in  a  Latin  word,  or 
does  not  fall  on  a  long  one,  in  either  case,  it  necessarily  leads  to  a  false  quantity;  and 
to  this  perhaps  more  than  any  thing  else,  is  to  be  attributed  the  acknowledged  deficien¬ 
cy  of  classical  scholars  among  us  in  this  respect.  For  the  English  orthoepy  of  the 
Latin  language,  see  P.  IX. 


4 


PRONUNCIATION. 


$2 


the  English,  both  because  it  harmonizes  better  with  the 
quantity  of  the  language,  as  settled  by  the  rules  of  Prosody* 
and  because,  by  giving  one  simple  sound  to  each  vowel,  dis¬ 
tinguishing  the  short  and  the  long  only  by  the  duration  of 
sounds,  it  is  much  more  simple.  The  sound  of  the  vowels 
as  pronounced  alone  or  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  is  exhibited 
in  the  following 

TABLE  OF  VOWEL  AND  DIPHTHONGAL  SOUNDS. 


Short  a  sounds 

like 

a 

in  Jehovah 

as 

amat. 

Long  a 

like 

a 

in  father, 

as 

fama. 

Short  e 

like 

e 

in  met, 

as 

petere. 

Long  e 

like 

ey 

i 

in  they. 

as 

docere. 

Short  i 

like 

in  uniform, 

as 

unTtas. 

Long  i 

like 

i 

in  machine, 

as 

pinus. 

Short  6 

like 

0 

in  polite, 

as 

indoles. 

Long  6 

like 

0 

in  go, 
in  popular, 

as 

pono. 

Short  u 

like 

u 

as 

populus. 

Long  u 

like 

u 

in  rule,  or  pure, 

as 

tuba,  usus. 

ae  or  se  ) 
oe  or  oe  j 

like 

ey 

in  they, 

as 

(  Peean. 

\  Phoebus. 

au 

like 

ou 

in  our, 
in  feud, 

as 

aurum. 

eu 

like 

eu 

as 

eurus. 

ei 

like 

i 

in  ice, 

as 

hei. 

Obs.  1.  The  vowels  a  and  e  have  the  same  sound  in  all 
situations. 


Obs.  2.  The  sound  of  i,  o,  and  u ,  is  slightly  modified 
when  followed  by  a  consonant  in  the  same  syllable,  and  is 
the  same  whether  the  syllable  is  long  or  short.  Thus 


modified, 

i  sounds  like 

i 

in  sit, 

as  mlttit. 

o  like 

0 

in  not, 

as  poterat,  forma 

u  like 

u 

in  tub, 

as  fructus. 

Note.  For  the  sound  of  u,  before  another  vowel,  after  g,  q,  and 
sometimes  s;  See  §  1,  Obs.  2 

Obs.  3.  The  consonants  are  pronounced  generally  as  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language.  C,  and  g,  are  hard  as  in  the  words  cat ,  and  got,  be¬ 
fore  a,  o,  and  u;  and  soft  like  s,  and  j,  before  e,  i,  y,  ce,  and  ce. 

Obs.  4.  T,  and  c,  following  or  ending  an  accented  syllable  before 
i,  followed  by  a  vowel,  usually  has  the  sound  of  sh;  as  in  nuntius  or 
ivncius,  patientia,  socius;  pronounced  nunshius ,  pashienshia ,  soshius. 


§3 


OP  SYLLABLES. 


6 


§  3.  OF  SYLLABLES. 

A  Syllable  is  a  distinct  sound,  forming  the  whole  of  a  word, 
or  so  much  of  it  as  can  be  sounded  at  once. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable . 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  Dissyllable. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  Trissyllable. 

A  word  of  many  syllables  is  called  a  P oly syllable. 

In  a  word  of  many  syllables,  the  last  is  called  the  final  syl¬ 
lable.  The  one  next  the  last,  is  called  the  'penult ,  and  the 
syllable  preceding  that,  is  called  the  antepenult . 

Obs.  The  Figures  affecting  the  orthography  of  words,  are 
the  following ;  viz. 

1st.  Prosthesis,  prefixes  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word  ;  as,  gnatus 
for  natus  ;  letulit,  for  tulit. 

i 

2d.  Epenthesis,  inserts  a  letter  or  syllable  in  the  middle  of  a 
word  ;  as  navita  for  nauta  ;  Timolus,  for  Tmolus. 

3d.  Paragoge,  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  end  of  a  word,  as 
amarier  for  amari,  8tc. 

4th.  Aphceresis ,  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning  of 
a  word  ;  as  brevisH  or  brevist,  for  brevis  est ;  rhabo  for  arrhabo. 

5th.  Syncope  takes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a  word  ; 
as,  oraclum  for  oraculum  ;  amarim  for  amavSrim  ;  deum  for  de¬ 
drum. 

6th.  Apocope,  takes  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a  word  ;  as 
Antoni  for  Antonii  ;  men ’  for  mene  ;  die  for  dice. 

7th.  Antithesis,  substitutes  one  letter  for  another  ;  as,  olli  for 
illi;  vult,  vultis  for  volt,  voltis,  contractions  for  volit,  volitis. 

8th.  Metathesis,  changes  the  order  of  letters  in  a  word  ;  as,  pistru 
for  pristis. 

9th.  Tmesis,  separates  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  by  inserting 
another  word  between  them  ;  as,  quee  me  cunque  vocant  terree 
for  qucecunque  mef  &c. 

10th.  Anastrophe,  inverts  the  order  of  words  ;  as  dare  circum,  for 
eircumdare. 


1* 


6 


OF  WORDS. 


PART  SECOND. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of 
words,  their  various  modifications,  and  their  de¬ 
rivations. 


§  4.  OF  WORDS. 

Words  are  certain  articulate  sounds  used  by 
common  consent  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

1.  In  respect  of  Formation ,  words  are  either 
Primitive  or  Derivative ,  Simple  or  Compound. 

A  Primitive  word  is  one  that  comes  from  no  other  ;  as, 
puer ,  bonus ,  pater. 

A  Derivative  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from  another 
word  ;  as,  pueritia ,  bonitas ,  paternus. 

A  Simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  combined  with  any  other 
word  ;  as,  pius,  doceo ,  verto. 

A  Compound  word  is  one  made  up  of  two  or  more  simple 
words ;  as,  impius ,  dedoceo ,  animadverto. 

2.  In  respect  of  Form ,  words  are  either  Declin¬ 
able  or  Indeclinable. 

A  Declinable  word  is  one  which  undergoes  certain  changes 
of  form  or  termination  to  express  the  different  relations  of 
gender,  number,  case,  person,  &c.  usually  termed,  in  Gram¬ 
mar,  Accidents. 

An  Indeclinable  word  is  one  that  undergoes  no  change  of 
form. 

3.  In  respect  of  Signification  and  Use,  words 
are  divided  into  different  classes,  called  Parts  of 
Speech. 


§5,6. 


rARTS  OF  SPEECH - OF  THE  NOUN. 


7 


§  5.  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  Latin  language  are 
eight,  viz. 

1.  Noun  or  Substantive ,  Adjective ,  Pronoun , 
Verb ,  declined. 

2.  Adverb ,  Preposition ,  Interjection ,  Conjunc¬ 
tion ,  undeclined. 

05s.  1.  The  Participle  which  is  regarded  by  some  as  a 
distinct  part  of  speech,  properly  belongs  to,  and  forms  a  part 
of  the  verb. 


§  6.  OF  THE  NOUN. 

A  Noun  or  Substantive,  is  the  name  of  any  per¬ 
son,  place  or  thing.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
Proper  and  Common. 

1.  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  applied  to  an 
individual  only ;  as,  Cicero ,  Aprilisf  Roma. 

Among  these  may  be  included, 

Patronymics ,  or  those  which  express  one’s  parentage  or  family  ;  as, 
Pri amides,  the  son  of  Priam. 

Gentile,  or  P atrial,  which  denote  one’s  country  ;  as,  Romanus,  Gal¬ 
lics,  &c. 

Obs.  A  proper  noun  applied  to  more  than  one  becomes  a  common 
noun;  as,  duodZcim  Ccesdres,  the  twelve  Caesars. 

2.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  applied  to  all 
things  of  the  same  sort;  as,  vir,  a  man;  domus , 
a  house ;  liber ,  a  hook. 

Under  this  class  may  he  ranged, 

1.  Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude,  which  signify  many  in 
the  singular  number  ;  as,  populus,  a  people  ;  exercitus,  an  army. 

2.  Abstract  nouns,  or  the  names  of  qualities ;  as  bonitas,  good- 

ess;  dulcedo.  sweetness 


s 


OCCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN. 


§7 


3  Diminutives ,  or  nouns  which  express  a  diminution  in  the  signifi* 
cation  of  the  noun  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  as  libcllus,  a  little 
book,  fiom  liber ,  a  book. 

4.  Amplijicative  nouns,  or  those  which  denote  an  increase  in  the 
signification  of  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  as,  capito 
a  person  having  a  large  head  ;  from  caput,  the  head. 


§  7.  ACCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN. 

To  the  Latin  noun  belong  Gender ,  Number ,  and 
Case. 

L  Gender  means  the  distinction  of  nouns  with 
regard  to  Sex. 

There  are  three  Genders,  the  Masculine ,  Femi¬ 
nine,  and  Neuter . 

Of  some  nouns  the  gender  is  determined  by  their  signifi¬ 
cation; — of  others,  by  their  termination . 

The  Masculine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  denote 
the  male  sex. 

The  Feminine  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  denote 
the  female  sex. 

The  Neuter  gender  belongs  to  all  nouns  which  are  neither 
masculine  nor  feminine. 

Nouns  which  denote  both  males  and  females  are  said  to  be 
of  the  Common  gender,  i.  e.  they  are  both  masculine  and  fe¬ 
minine. 

Nouns  denoting  things  without  sex,  and  which  are  some¬ 
times  of  one  gender,  and  sometimes  of  another,  are  said  to  be 
Doubtful. 

The  gender  of  nouns  not  determined  by  their  signification 
is  usually  to  be  ascertained  by  their  termination,  as  will  be 
noticed  under  each  declension. 


§7 


ACCIDENTS  OF  THE  NOUN. 


9 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  GENDER. 

Obs.  1.  Nouns  denoting  brute  animals,  especially  those 
whose  sex  is  not  easily  discerned  or  but  rarely  attended  to, 
commonly  follow  the  gender  of  their  termination.  Such  are 
the  names  of  wild  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  insects,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  A  proper  name  often  follows  the  gender  of  the 
general  noun  under  which  it  is  comprehended ;  thus, 

The  names  of  months,  winds,  rivers  and  mountains,  are 
masculine,  because  mensis ,  ve?itus,Jluviust  mons ,  are  mascu¬ 
line. 

The  names  of  countries,  towns,  trees,  and  ships,  are  femi¬ 
nine,  because  terra ,  urbs ,  arbor ,  navis ,  are  feminine. 

To  these,  however,  there  are  many  exceptions. 

Obs.  3.  Some  nouns  are  masculine  and  feminine  both  in 
sense  and  grammatical  construction ;  as  adolescens ,  a  young 
man  or  woman ;  Affinis ,  a  relation  by  marriage ;  dux ,  a 
leader. 

Some  are  masculine  or  feminine  in  sense,  but  masculine 
only  in  grammatical  construction,  i.  e.  they  have  an  adjective 
word  always  in  the  masculine  gender ;  such  as,  Artifex ,  an 
artist ;  fur ,  a  thief ;  senex ,  an  old  person,  &c. 

Some  are  masculine  or  feminine  in  sense,  but  feminine  on¬ 
ly  in  grammatical  construction;  i.  e.  they  have  an  adjective 
word  always  in  the  feminine  gender ;  such  as,  copice,  forces 
troops  ;  custodies ,  guards  ;  operce ,  labourers,  & c. 

Obs.  4.  Some  nouns  denoting  persons,  are  neuter,  both  in 
termination  and  construction ;  as,  Acroama,  a  jester ;  auxi 
lia ,  auxiliary  troops ;  mancipium ,  or  servilium ,  a  slave. 

2.  Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  by 
which  it  expresses  one,  or  more  than  one. 

Latin  nouns  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular 
and  the  Plural.  The  Singular  denotes  one ;  the 
Plural,  more  than  one. 

Obs.  5.  Some  nouns  in  the  plural  form  denote  but  one  ;  as, 
Athence ,  Athens ;  others  signify  ont  or  more ;  as  nuptice ,  a 
marriage  or  marriages. 

3.  Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with 
nespect  to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 


10 


OP  DECLENSION. 


§8 


Latin  nouns  have  six  cases,  the  Nominative , 
Genitive ,  Dative ,  Accusative ,  Vocative ,  and  Ablative, 

1st.  The  Nominative  case  denotes  the  name  of  an  object 
simply,  or  as  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 

2d.  The  Genitive  connects  with  the  name  of  an  object, 
the  idea  of  origin  or  possession. 

3d.  The  Dative  represents  the  thing  named,  as  that  to 
which  something  is  added,  or  to ,  or  for  which,  some¬ 
thing  is  said  or  done. 

4th.  The  Accusative  represents  the  thing  named,  as  affect¬ 
ed  or  acted  upon  by  something  else,  and  also,  the  ob¬ 
ject  to  which  something  tends  or  relates. 

5th.  The  Vocative  is  used  when  persons  and  things  are 
addressed. 

6th.  The  Ablative  represents  the  thing  named  as  that 
from  which  something  is  separated  or  taken,  or  as 
that  by  or  with  which  something  is  done,  or  exists. 

Obs.  6.  All  the  cases,  except  the  nominative,  are  called  Ob * 
lique  cases. 

Obs.  7.  The  signs  of  the  oblique  cases,  or  the  prepositions 
by  which  they  are  usually  rendered  into  English,  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing,  viz.  Genitive,  of;  Dative,  to  or  for ;  Vocative,  O ; 
Ablative,  with ,  from ,  in ,  by ,  &c.  as  in  the  following  scheme : 


Singular. 

a  king, 
of  a  king, 
to  or  for  a  king, 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Acc. 

Voc.  O  king 

Abl  .with, from,  in  or  by  a  king. 


a  king, 


Plural. 

Nom.  kings, 

Gen.  of  kings, 

Dat.  to  or  for  kings. 

Acc.  kings, 

Voc.  O  kings, 

Abl.  with,  from, in,  by  kings. 


§  8.  OF  DECLENSION. 

Declension  is  the  mode  of  changing  the  termi¬ 
nations  of  nouns,  &c. 

In  Latin  there  are  five  declensions,  called  the 
First ,  Second,  Third ,  Fourth  and  Fifth . 


§8 


OF  DECLENSION. 


11 


The  declensions  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  termination  of  the  genitive  singu¬ 
lar;  thus, 


The  first  declension  has  the  genitive  singular  in  -ce, 


The  second 

u 

u 

in  -it 

The  third 

« 

<( 

in  -is, 

The  fourth 

u 

u 

in  -us 

The  fifth 

u 

u 

in  -ei. 

i 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  THE  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

1.  Nouns  of  the  neuter  gender  have  the  Nomin¬ 
ative,  Accusative  and  Vocative  alike  in  both 
numbers,  and  these  cases  in  the  plural  end  al¬ 
ways  in  a. 

2.  The  Vocative  for  the  most  part  in  the  singu¬ 
lar,  and  always  in  the  plural,  is  like  the  Nomina¬ 
tive. 

3.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  plural  are  alike. 

4.  Proper  names  for  the  most  part  want  the 
plural. 

Ohs.  1.  The  difference  between  these  declensions  will  be 
seen  at  one  view  in  the  following 

TABLE  OF  TERMINATIONS. 

Singular. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

M. 

N. 

M.  N. 

M. 

N. 

Nom. 

-a, 

-us,  -er, 

-um, 

. 

-us, 

-u, 

-es, 

Gen. 

-se, 

• 

-h 

-is, 

-tis, 

-el, 

Dat. 

-h 

-ui, 

-u, 

•• 

-ei, 

Acc. 

-am, 

-um, 

-um, 

-em, 

-um, 

-fi, 

-em, 

Voc. 

-a, 

-e,  -er, 

-um, 

— 

-us, 

-u, 

-es, 

All. 

l-a. 

-5. 

-e.  or  -1. 

-a. 

-u. 

-e. 

12 


THE  FIRST  DECLENSION. 


§9 


Plural. 


I. 

II. 

III, 

M. 

N. 

M. 

Nom. 

-ae, 

-~h 

-a, 

Gen. 

-arum, 

-orum 

j 

-um,  -ium, 

Dat. 

-is, 

-is, 

-ibus, 

Acc. 

-as, 

-os, 

-a, 

-es,  -a, 

Voc. 

-as, 

-h 

w 

-a, 

-es,  -a, 

Abl. 

-is. 

-is. 

-ibus. 

N. 


M. 


IV. 


N. 


-us, 


-ua, 


•  V 

-la, 

•  v 

-la, 


-uum, 

-ibus,  or  -ubus, 
-us,  -ua, 

-us,  -ua, 

-ibus,  or  -ubus. 


-es, 

-erum, 

-ebus, 

-es, 

-es, 

-ebus. 


Obs.  2.  The  terminations  of  the  Nominative  singular  in 
the  third  declension  being  numerous,  are  omitted  in  the  ta¬ 
ble.  The  terminations  of  the  Gen.  Dat.  and  Abl.,  Neuter 
are  the  same  as  the  Masculine. 


§  9.  THE  FIRST  DECLENSION. 

The  First  Declension  has  four  terminations ; 
two  feminine,  a ,  e,  and  two  masculine,  as,  es. 

Latin  nouns  end  only  in  a :  the  rest  are  Greek. 


TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

-a, 

Nom.  -ae, 

Gen. 

-ae, 

Gen.  -arum, 

Dat. 

-ae, 

Dat.  -is, 

Acc. 

-am, 

Acc.  -as, 

Voc. 

-a, 

Voc.  -ae, 

Abl. 

-a. 

Abl.  -is. 

- 

Penna, 

a  pen,  Fem. 

Singular . 

Plural. 

N.  penn-a, 

a  pen, 

N.  penn-ae, 

pern. 

G.  penn-ae, 

of  a  pen , 

G.  penn-arum, 

of  pens, 

D.  penn-ae,  to,  or  for  a  pen , 

D.  penn-is,  to,  or  for  pens , 

Ac.  penn-am, 

a  pen, 

Ac.  penn-as, 

pens 

V .  penn-a, 

0  pen , 

V.  penn-ae, 

0  pens. 

Ab.  penn-a, 

with  a  pen. 

Ab.  penn-is, 

with  pens. 

§9 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


13 


Note. — The  words  declined  as  examples  in  this  and  the  other  declem 
sions,  are  not  divided  into  syllables,  and  the  hyphen  (-)  is  never  to  be 
regarded  as  a  division  of  syllables,  but  only  as  separating  the  root 
from  the  termination ,  as  penn-a ,  agr-i,  he. 

In  like  manner  decline, 

Ara,  an  altar ;  Sella,  a  seat;  Tuba,  a  trumpet;  Litera,  a  letter , 


Additional  Examples. 


Ala, 

a  wing. 

Faba,  a  bean. 

Ripa, 

a  bank. 

Area, 

a  chest. 

Hora,  an  hour. 

Turba, 

a  crowd. 

Casa, 

a  cottage. 

Mensa,  a  table. 

Unda, 

a  wave. 

Causa 

,  a  cause. 

Norma,  a  rule. 

Virga, 

a  rod. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

1.  Nouns  in  a,  denoting  appellations  of  men,  as  pincerna, a 
butler;  names  of  rivers,  (§7,  Obs.  2,)  likewise  Hadria,  the 
Hadriatic  ;  cometd ,  a  comet ;  planetd ,  a  planet ;  and  some¬ 
times  talpd,  a  mole  ;  and  damd ,  a  fallow-deer,  are  masculine. 
Paschd ,  the  passover,  is  neuter. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  CASE. 

2.  The  Genitive  Singular. — The  ancient  Latins  sometimes 
formed  the  genitive  in  -di  ;  as  auld ,  a  hall ;  Gen.  auldi  ;— 
sometimes  in  - as ,  as  mater-familias ,  the  mother  of  a  fami¬ 
ly,  (See  §  18,  9.) 

3.  The  Accusative  Singular. — Greek  nouns  in  a,  have 
sometimes  -an,  in  the  accusative  sing. ;  as,  Maian ,  Ossan. 

4.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. — The  following  nouns 
have  -abus  instead  of  -is,  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  plural, 
to  distinguish  them  from  masculine  nouns  in  -us,  of  the  se¬ 
cond  declension,  viz. 

Dea,  a  goddess.  Filia,  a  daughter. 

Equa,  a  mare .  Mula,  a  she  mule. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 

Greek  nouns  in  - as ,  -es,  and  - e ,  are  declined  as 
follows,  in  the  singular  number : — 


2 


14 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


.Eneas,  1 Eneas . 

N.  JEne  -as, 

G.  JEne-ae, 

1).  iEne-ce, 

Ac.  JEne-am ,or- 
V.  iEne-a, 

Ab.  AEne-a. 


Anchises,  Anchi . 

N.  Anchis-es, 
G.  Anchis-a?, 
D.  Anchis-ae, 

,  Ac.  Anchis-en, 
V.  Anchis-e, 
Ab.  Anchis-e. 


•  Penelope,  Penelope , 

N.  Penelop  e, 

G.  Penelop-es, 

D.  Penelop-e, 

Ac.  Penelop-en, 

V.  Penelop-e, 

Ab.  Penelop-e. 


Like  JEneas ,  decline  Boreas,  the  north  wind  ;  Midas,  a  king  of 
Phrygia. 

Like  Anchises,  decline  Alcides,  a  name  of  Hercules  ;  cometes,  a 
comet;  Pelides,  Achilles,  the  sonof  Peleus. 

Like  Penelope,  decline  Circe ,  a  famous  sorceress  ;  Cybcle,  the 
mother  of  the  gods  ;  Epitome,  an  abridgment ;  Grammatice,  gram¬ 
mar. 

Obs.  1.  When  the  plural  of  proper  names  occurs,  it  is 
like  the  plural  of  penna  ;  thus,  Atridce ,  Atridarum ,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  Nouns  in  -es  have  sometimes  a  in  the  Vocative, 
more  rarely  a.  Nouns  in  -stes  have  - sta .  They  also  some¬ 
times  have  the  Accusative  in  -em,  and  the  Ablative  in  -a. 


EXERCISES  ON  THE  FIRST  DECLENSION.* 

1.  Tell  the  case  and  number  of  the  following  words  and 
translate  them  accordingly -Penna,  pennam,  pennarum, 
pennis,  penna,  pennse ; — aram,  aris,  sellse,  sella,  sella,  sel- 
larum  ;  tubis,  tubam,  tubte,  litera,  literarum,  pennis,  aras, 
tubas,  literis ; — Penelopes,  Penelopen,  JEnean,  Anchises, 
Anchisse,  JEnea. 

2.  Translate  the  following  words  into  Latin: — The  pen, 
of  pens,  with  pens,  from  a  pen,  in  a  pen,  by  pens ;  from  the 
altars ;  of  a  trumpet ;  with  letters ;  a  seat ;  O  altar ;  the  seat  of 
Perelope;  of  iEneas;  with  Anchises ;  a  trumpet;  from  the 
altar;  to  a  seat;  with  a  pen;  of  the  altars;  &c.  ad  libitum. 

*  Words  in  the  above  exercises.  Proper  names  usually  to  be  tran* 
lated  in  the  nominative  case. 

Penna,  a  pen.  Tuba,  a  trumpet. 

Ara,  an  altar.  Litera,  a  letter. 

Sella,  a  seat. 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


15 


§10 


§  10.  THE  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

The  Second  Declension  has  seven  terminations : 
namely, 

Five  masculine,  -er,  -ir,  - ur ,  - us ,  and  -os. 

Two  Neuter,  -um,  and  -on. 

Of  these  terminations,  -os,  and  -on,  are  Greek ; 
the  rest  are  Latin. 


Neuter. 


TERMINATIONS. 

Masculine. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  -er,  -us,  N.  -i, 

G.  -i,  G.  -orum, 

D.  -o,  D.  -is, 

Ac.  -um,  Ac.  -os, 

V.  -e,  or  like  nom.  V.  -i, 

Ab.  -o.  Ah.  -is. 

Rem.  Nouns  in  - er ,  -ir,  and  -ur,  add  -i  in  the  genitive  j  but  -us  and 
um  are  changed  into  -i. 

Puer,  a  boy,  Masc. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

N.  -um, 

N.  -a, 

G.  -i, 

G.  -orum, 

D.  -o, 

D.  -is, 

Ac.  -um, 

Ac.  -a, 

V.  -um, 

V.  -a, 

Ab.  -o. 

Ab.  -is. 

Plural. 

N.  puer-i,  boys, 

G.  puer-orum,  of  boys , 
D.  puer-is,  to,  or  for  boys, 


Singular. 

N.  puer,  a  boy, 

G.  puer-i,  of  a  boy, 

1).  puer-o,  to,  or  for  a  boy, 

Ac.  puer-um,  a  boy , 

V.  puer,  O  boy, 

Ab.  puer-o.  with ,  <J-c.  a  boy. 

Thus  decline, 

Gener,  a  son-in-law  ;  Liber,  ilaccAws/Mulciber,  Vulcan ; 
Vir,  a  Man. 

Rule  1.  But  most  nouns  in  er,  lose  e,  in  the 
genitive;  as, 

Liber,  a  booh ,  Masc. 


Ac.  puer-os, 
V.  puer-i, 
Ab.  puer-is. 


boys, 
O  boys, 
with,  fyc.  boys. 


Singular. 
N.  liber, 

G.  libr-i, 

D.  libr-o, 

Ac.  libr-um, 

V.  liber, 

Ab.  libr-o. 


Plural. 
N.  libr-i, 

G.  libr-orum, 
D.  libr-is, 

Ac.  libr-os, 

V.  libr-i, 

Ab.  libr-is.. 


Thus  decline. 
Ager,  a  field . 

Aper,  a  wild  boar. 
Culter,  a  hnife. 

Magister,  a  master. 
Auster,  the  smith  wind . 
Cancer,  a  crab. 


16  SECOND  DECLENSION.  §  10 

Rule  2.  Nouns  in  -us,  have  the  Vocative  in  -e, 
as  ventus ,  vente. 


Dominus,  a  lord ,  Masc. 


Singular . 

Plural. 

Thus  decline . 

N.  domin-us, 

N.  domin-i, 

Ventus, 

the  wind. 

G.  domin-i, 

G.  domin-orum, 

Oculus, 

the  eye, 

D.  domin-o, 

D.  domin-is, 

Annus, 

a  year. 

Ac.  domin-um, 

Ac.  domin-os, 

Fluvius, 

Hortus, 

a  river. 

V.  domin-e, 

V.  domin-i, 

a  garden 

Ab.  domin-o. 

Ab.  domin-is. 
Regnum,  a  kingdom 

Radius, 

,  Neut. 

a  ray. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Thus  decline. 

N.  regn-um, 

N.  regn-a, 

Antrum, 

a  cave. 

G.  regn-i, 

G.  regn-orum, 

A  strum, 
Donum, 

a  star. 

D.  regn-o, 

D.  regn-is, 

a  gift. 

Ac.  regn-um, 

Ac.  regn-a, 

Jugum, 

a  yoke. 

V.  regn-um, 

V.  regn-a, 

Saxum, 

a  stone. 

Ab.  regn-o. 

Ab.  regn-is. 

Pomum, 

an  apple. 

Promiscuous  Examples. 

Arbiter,  a  judge. 

Folium, 

a  leaf. 

Socer,  a 

father-in-law 

Bellum,  war. 

Gladius, 

a  sword. 

Telum, 

a  dart. 

Cadus,  a  cask. 

Lupus, 

a  wolf. 

Torus, 

a  couch. 

Cervus,  a  stag. 

Murus, 

a  wall. 

Tectum, 

the  roof. 

Collum,  the  neck. 

Nidus, 

a  nest. 

Truncus 

,  the  trunk. 

Equus,  a  horse. 

Ovum, 

an  egg. 

Velum, 

a  sail. 

Faber,  an  artist. 

Prselium, 

a  battle. 

Vadum, 

a  ford. 

Ficus,  f.  a  figtree. 

Ramus, 

a  branch. 

Votum, 

a  vow. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

Exc.  1.  Of  nouhs  ending  in  -us,  the  names  of  plants, 
towns,  islands  and  precious  stones,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
feminine,  §  7,  Obs.  2. 

Exc.  2.  Besides  these,  only  four  words  originally  Latin, 
are  feminine  ;  viz.  alvus ,  the  belly  ;  coins ,  the  distaff  $  hu¬ 
mus,  the  ground ;  and  vannus,  a  winnowing  fan. 

Exc .  3.  Virus,  juice,  poison,  and  pelagus ,  the  sea,  are 
neuter.  Vulgus ,  the  common  people,  is  both  masculine  and 
neuter.  Pampinus ,  a  vine  branch,  is  rarely  feminine,  com¬ 
monly  masculine. 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


17 


$  10 

Exc.  4.  Many  Greek  nouns  in  - us ,  are  feminine,  especial¬ 
ly  compounds  of  r)  ofiog  ;  as,  metkodus ,  periodus ,  &c.  So  also, 
biblus ,  papyrus,  diphthongus ,  paragraphus ,  diametrus , 
metrus. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  DECLENSION. 

Exc.  5.  The  Vocative  Singular .  1st.  Proper 
names  in  ius  lose  us  in  the  Vocative;  as  Geor¬ 
gius ,  V.  Georgi ;  except  Pius  which  has  Pie. 

In  like  manner,  jilius ,  a  son,  has  fill ,  and  genius ,  one’s 
guardian  angel,  has  geni.  But  other  nouns  in  -ius ,  and  such 
epithets  as  Delius ,  Saturnius ,  &c.  not  considered  as  proper 
names,  have  ee. 

2d.  Dews  has  deus  in  the  vocative,  and  in  the  plural  more 
frequently  dii  and  diis ,  (sometimes  contracted  c/7  and 
than  dei  and  deis .  Mens ,  my,  has  the  vocative  mi ,  sometimes 
meus. 

Obs.  The  poets  sometimes  make  the  vocative  of  nouns  in 
-■ us ,  like  the  nominative;  rarely  so  in  prose.  Sometimes, 
also,  they  change  nouns  in  -er  into  -us,  as  Evander  or  Evan - 
drus  ;  in  the  vocative,  Evander  or  Evandre. 

Exc.  6.  The  Genitive  Singular. — The  genitive  of  singu¬ 
lar  nouns  in  ius  and  ium ,  in  the  purest  age  of  Latin  was 
formed  in  i,  not  ii,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  as  fili,  Tulli ,  in - 
geni ;  they  are  now  frequently  written  with  a  circumflex; 
thus,  Tulli ,  ingeni ,  for  fidii ,  Tullii ,  &c. 

Exc.  7.  The  Genitive  Plural. — Some  nouns  especially 
those  which  denote  value,  measure,  weight,  commonly  form 
the  genitive  plural  in  - um  instead  of  -drum  ;  as,  nummum , 
sestertiiim ,  &c.  The  same  form  occurs  in  other  words,  espe¬ 
cially  in  poetry;  as,  deUrn ,  Danahm ,  &c.;  also,  divomis 
used  for  divorum. 

Deus,  a  god ,  is  thus  declined : 

Singular.  Plural. 


IV. 

De-us, 

N. 

De-i,  or  Di-i, 

Contr. 

D!, 

G. 

De-i, 

G. 

De-6rum, 

D. 

De-o, 

D- 

De-is,  or  Di-is, 

(C 

Dis, 

^!c. 

De-um, 

Ac. 

De-os, 

F. 

De-us, 

V. 

De-i,  or  Di-i, 

a 

D», 

Ab. 

De-o. 

Ab. 

De-is,  or  Di-is, 

M 

Dis. 

2* 


18 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


§  10 


GREEK  NOUNS. 

Greek  nouns  in  -os  and  -on,  are  often  changed  into  -us  and 
-urn;  as  Alpheos ,  Alpheus;  Ilion,  Ilium.  Those  in  -ros,  ‘mto 
er;  as,  Alexandras,  Alexander .  When  thus  changed,  they  are 
declined  like  Latin  nouns  of  the  same  termination.  Other¬ 
wise 


Greek  nouns  are  thus  declined. 


Singular. 

N.  Del-os,  Androge-os, 

G.  Del-i,  Androge-o,  or  -i, 
D.  Del-o,  Androge-o, 

Ac.  Del-on,  Androge-o, or  -on, 
V.  Del-e,  Androge-os, 

Al.  Del-o.  Androge-o. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

N.  barbit-on, 

barbit-a, 

G.  barbit-i, 

barbit-on 

D.  barbit-o, 

barbit-is, 

Ac.  barbit-on, 

barbit-a, 

V.  barbit-on, 

barbit-a, 

Ab.  barbit-o. 

barbit-is. 

Some  nouns  in  -os,  anciently  had  the  genitive  in  u;  as  Menandru. 
Panthu  occurs  in  Virgil  as  the  vocative  of  Panthus.  Proper  names 
in  -cus  are  declined  like  dominus,  but  have  the  vocative  in  - eus ,  and 
sometimes  contract  the  genitive  singular  as  Orphei,  Orphei,  or  Orphi. 
When  -eu  is  a  diphthong,  they  are  of  the  third  declension.  Other 
nouns,  also,  are  sometimes  of  the  third  declension  ;  as,  Androgeo, 
Androgeonis. 


EXERCISES  ON  THE  SECOND  DECLENSION* 

Tell  the  case  and  number  of  the  following  words  and 
translate  them  accordingly  : — Pueri,  dominorr  im,  domino, 
puero,  puerum,  pueros,  libri,  libris,  librum,  libro,  dominis,  do- 
mine,  regnum,  regna,  regnorum — ventus,  vento,  ventum — 
oculus,  oculorum — filii,  fili,  filiis,  filios. 

Translate  the  following  words  into  Latin  :  — To  a  boy, 
from  a  boy,  O  boy,  O  boys,  of  boys,  books,  of  books,  for  books, 
in  books,  with  a  book,  a  lord,  from  a  lord,  to  a  lord,  of  lords, 
the  lords,  of  a  kingdom,  the  kingdom,  to  the  kingdoms,  to 
the  winds  of  heaven,  lords  of  the  soil,  &c.  ad  libitum. 


*  Words  in  the  above  Exercises, 

Puer,  a  boy.  Regnum,  a  kingdom.  Solum,  the  soil 

Dominus,  a  lord.  Ventus,  the  wind.  Oculus,  the  eye. 

Liber  a  book.  Coelum,  heaven.  Filius  a  son. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


19 


M* 


§  11.  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

Nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  very  numer¬ 
ous;  they  are  of  all  genders;  and  geneially  in¬ 
crease  one  syllable  in  the  oblique  cases.*  Its  final 
letters  are  thirteen,  a,  e,  i,  o,  y,  c,  d,  /,  n ,  r,  s,  t, 
Of  these  a ,  i,  y,  are  peculiar  to  Greek  nouns. 


TERMINATIONS. 


Masculine 

and 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Singular. 

Plural 

Singular. 

Plural. 

JSf.  -, 

N. 

-es, 

N.  — 

N. 

-a, 

G.  -is, 

G. 

-um,  or  -ium, 

G.  -is, 

G. 

-um,  or  -ium, 

D.  -i, 

D. 

-ibus, 

D.  -i 

D. 

-ibus, 

Ac.  -em, 

Ac. 

-es, 

Ac.  — , 

A.c. 

-a, 

V  _ 

V. 

-es, 

V. 

V. 

-a, 

Ab.  -e,  or- i. 

Ab. 

-ibus. 

| Ab.  -e,  or 

i.  Ab. 

-ibus. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  In  this  declension,  the  Nominative  and  Vocative,  of 
Masculine  and  Feminine  nouns  are  always  alike.  As  the  final 
syllables  of  the  nominative  are  very  numerous,  a  dash  ( — ) 
supplies  their  place  in  the  above  table.  Neuter  nouns  come 
under  the  general  rule,  §  8.  1. 

2.  All  nouns  of  this  declension  are  declined  by  annexing 
the  above  case- endings,  or  terminations  to  the  root. 

3.  The  Root  consists  of  all  that  stands  before  -is  in  the 
genitive,  and  remains  unchanged  throughout.  Hence,  when 
the  genitive  case  is  found,  the  cases  after  that  are  alike  in  all 
nouns,  except  as  noticed  hereafter. 

4.  The  genitive  of  nouns  in  this  declension,  will  be  most 
easily  learned  from  the  Dictionary,  as  all  rules  that  can  be 
given  are  rendered  nearly  useless  by  the  number  of  excep¬ 
tions  under  them. 

5.  In  the  following  examples,  the  root  and  terminations  are 
separated  by  a  hyphen  (-)  in  order  to  shew  more  distinctly 
the  regularity  of  the  declension.  This  being  mentioned,  it 

*  A  noun  is  said  to  increase,  when  it  has  more  syllables  in  any  case 
than  it  has  in  the  nominative. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


20 


will  occasion  no  difficulty,  though  standing  as  it  often  does, 
in  the  middle  of  a  syllable ;  as,  pa  tr-is . 


§  12.  EXAMPLES  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

1.  Sermo,  a  speech ,  Masc. 


Singula*. 

N.  Sermo, 

G.  Sermon-is, 
D.  Sermon-i, 
Ac.  Sermon-em 
V.  Sermo, 

Ah.  Sermon-e. 


Plural. 

N.  Sermon-es, 
G.  Sermon-um, 
D.  Sermon-ibus, 
Ac.  Sermon-es, 

V.  Sermon-es, 
Ah.  Sermon-ibus. 


Thus  decline. 

Carbo,  a  coal. 
Leo,  a  lion. 
Pavo,  a  peacock. 
Praedo,  a  rohher. 


Singular. 

N.  color, 

G.  Cclor-is, 
D.  color-i, 
Ac.  color-em, 
V.  color, 

Ah.  color-e. 


2.  Color,  a  color ,  Masc. 


Plural. 

N.  color-es, 
G.  color-um, 
D.  color-ibus, 
Ac.  color-es, 

V.  color-es, 
Ah.  color-ibus. 


Thus  decline. 

Honor,  honor. 
Lector,  a  reader . 
Pastor,  a  shepherd 


Singular. 
N.  miles, 

G.  milit-is, 
D.  milit-i, 
Ac.  milit-em, 
V.  miles, 
Ah.  milit-e. 


3.  Miles,  a  soldier , 

Plural. 

N.  milit-es, 

G.  milit-um, 

D.  milit-ibus, 
Ac.  milit-es, 

V.  milit-es, 

Ah.  milit-ibus. 


Masc. 

Thus  decline. 

Comes, a  companion 
Limes,  a  limit. 
Trames,  a  path. 


Rule  1.  Nouns  in  - es  and  -is,  not  increasing  in 
the  genitive  singular,  have  -ium  in  the  genitive 
plural. 

Except  canis ,  a  dog;  panis,  bread;  vatis ,  a  prophet;  juvenis,  a 
young  man ;  and  volucris  a  bird. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


21 


§  12 


Singular. 
N.  rup-es, 
G.  rup-isj 
I).  rup-i, 
Ac.  rup-em, 
V.  rup-es, 
Ab.  rup-e. 


4.  Rupes,  a  rock ,  Fem. 


Plural. 

N.  rup-es, 

G.  rup-ium, 
D.  rup-ibus, 
Ac.  rup-es, 

V.  rup-es, 
Ab.  rup-ibus. 


Thus 

decline . 

Apis, 

a  bee. 

Classis, 

a  fleet. 

Moles, 

a  mass. 

Nubes, 

a  cloud . 

Vitis, 

a  vine. 

Vulpes, 

a  fox. 

Rule  2.  Nouns  of  one  syllable  in  - as  and  -is, 
and  also,  in  s  and  x ,  after  a  consonant  have  -ium 
in  the  genitive  plural ;  as, 


Singular. 
N.  pars, 

G.  part-is, 
D.  part-i, 
Ac.  part-era, 
V.  pars, 

'  Ab.  part-e. 


5.  Pars,  a  part, 

Plural. 

N.  part-es, 

G.  part-iura, 

D.  part-ibus, 
Ac.  part-es, 

V.  part-es, 

Ab.  part-ibus. 


This  decline. 

Calx,  -cis,  the  heel 
Vas,-dis,  a  surety. 
Lis, -tis,  alaw-suit. 
Arx,-cis,  a  citadel. 
Urbs,  -is,  a  city. 
Pons,  -tis,  a  bridge. 


Rule  3.  Nouns  of  more  than  one  syllable  in 
-as  and  -ns,  have  -um,  and  sometimes  -ium  in  the 
genitive  plural. 


6. 

Singular. 


Parens,  a  parent ,  Masc.  or  Fem. 


Plural. 


Thus  decline. 


N.  parens, 

G.  parent-is, 
jO.  parent-i, 
Ac.  parent-era, 
V.  parens, 

Ab.  parent-e. 


N.  parent-es, 

G.  parent-um,-ium, 
D.  parent-ibus, 

Ac.  parent-es, 

V.  parent-es, 

Ab.  parent-ibus. 


Rudens, 

Cliens, 

Serpens, 


a  cable, 
a  client, 
a  serpent. 


Ohs.  1.  Masculine  and  Feminine  nouns  which  have  -ium  in 
the  genitive  plural,  have  sometimes  -is,  or  - eis ,  as  well  as 
-es  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative  and  Vocative  plural as, 
varies ,  part  ium.  Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc.  partes ,  parteis,  or 
partis. 


22 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§12 


Singular. 
N.  opus, 

G.  oper-is, 
D.  oper-i, 
Ac.  opus, 

V.  opus, 
Ab.  oper-e. 


7.  Opus,  a  work ,  Neut.  §  8.  R.  1. 


Plural. 

N.  oper-a, 

G.  oper-um, 
D.  oper-ibus, 
Ac.  oper-a, 

V.  oper-a, 
Ab.  oper-ibus. 


Thus  decline. 

Funus,  a  funeral. 

Latus,  the  side. 

Corpus-oris,  the  body. 
Caput,  capitis,  the  head. 
Iter,  itineris,  a  journey. 


Rule  4.  Nouns  in  - e  and  -&/,  and  -ar,  have  -i  in 
the  Ablative  singular;  -ium  in  the  Genitive  plu¬ 
ral;  and  -ia  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative  and 
Vocative  plural. 

Exc.  Proper  names  in  -e  have  - e  in  the  Ablative  5  as,  Prceneste , 
Neut.  a  town  in  Italy  j  Ablative,  Prceneste. 

8.  Sedile,  a  seat ,  Neut. 


Singular. 
N.  sedll-e, 
G.  sedll-is, 
D.  sedll-i, 
Ac.  sedll-e, 
V.  sedll-e, 
Ab.  sedll-i. 


Plural. 

N.  sedil-ia, 
G.  sedll-ium, 
D.  sedll-ibus, 
Ac.  sedil-ia, 

V.  sedil-ia,  • 
Ab.  sedll-ibus. 


Thus  decline. 
Ancile,  a  shield. 
Mantile,  a  towel. 
Mare,  the  sea. 
Rete,  a  net. 
Cubile,  a  couch . 


Singular. 
N.  animal, 

G.  animal-is, 
D.  animal-i, 
Ac.  animal, 

V.  animal, 
Ab.  animal-i. 


Acer,  -eris,  n. 
iElas,  -atis,  f. 
Arbor,  -6ris,  f. 
Aries,  -Stis,  m. 
Ars,  -tis,  f. 


9.  Animal,  an  animal ,  Neut. 


Plural. 

N.  animal-ia, 

G.  animal-ium, 
D.  animal-ibus, 
Ac.  animal-ia, 

V.  animal-ia 
Ab.  animal-ibus. 


Thus  decline . 

Cubital,  a  cushion. 

Calcar,  a  spur. 

Vectlgal,  a  tax. 


ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES. 

a  maple  tree.  Homo,  -Inis,  c. 
age.  Imago,  -Inis,  f. 

a  tree.  Iter,  itineris,  n. 

a  ram.  Lac,  -tis,  n. 

an  art  Lapis,  -Idis,  m 


a  man 
an  image, 
a  journey 
milk, 
a  stone 


§  13 

THIRD  : 

DECLEJS  SION. 

23 

Canon,  -6nis,  m. 

a  rule. 

Laus,  -dis,  f. 

praise 

Career,  -eris,  m. 

a  'prison. 

Lex,  legis,  f. 

a  lato 

Cardo,  -Inis,  m. 

a  hinge. 

Monile,  -is,  f. 

a  necklace 

Carmen, -Inis,  n. 

a  poem. 

Mons,  -tis,  m. 

a  mountain 

Cervix.  -Icis,  f. 

the  neck 

Munus,  -eris,  n. 

a  gift. 

Codex,  -icis,  m. 

a  book 

Nox,  noctis,  f. 

night. 

Consul, -ulis,  m. 

a  con  ml. 

Onus,  -eris,  n. 

a  burdert 

Cor,  cordis,  n. 

the  heart. 

Ovile,  -is,  n. 

a  sheepfola 

Crux,  -ucis,  f. 

a  cross. 

Pecten,  -Inis,  m. 

a  comb. 

Cubile,  -is,  n. 

a  couch. 

Regio,  -onis,  f. 

a  region. 

Dens,  -tis,  m. 

a  tooth. 

Salar,-aris,  m. 

a  trout. 

Dos,  dotis,  f. 

a  dowry. 

Serpens,  -tis,  c. 

a  serpent. 

Femur,  -oris,  n. 

the  thigh. 

Toral,-alis,  n. 

abed  cover. 

Formido,  -Inis,  f. 

fear. 

Trabs,  -abis,  f. 

a  beam. 

Fornax,  -acis,  f. 

a  furnace. 

Turris,  -is,  f. 

a  tower. 

Frater,  -tris,  m. 

a  brother. 

Uter,  utris,  m. 

a  bottle. 

Fur,  far  is,  c. 

a  thief. 

Virgo, -Inis,  f. 

a  virgin. 

Genus,  -eris,  n. 

a  kind. 

Voluptas,  -atis,  f. 

pleasure. 

Haeres,  -edis,  c. 

an  heir. 

Vulnus,  -eris,  n. 

a  wound. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  EXAMPLES. 

Tell  the  ease  and  number  of  the  following  words  and 
translate  them  accordingly : — Sermonis,  sermonum,  colori- 
bus,  colori,  colore,  colores,  militum,  militis,  militem,  militi- 
bus,  rupis,rupe,  rupium,  rupi,  rupibus,  partium,  partes,  parte, 
partis,  parenti,  parente,  parentum,  parentes,  parentis,  opera, 
opere,  operi,  operibus,  operum,  sedilis,  sedilia,  sedilibus, 
sedili,  sedilium,  animalia,  animalis,  animali. 

Translate  the  following  ivords  into  Latin : — Of  a  rock, 
of  rocks,  from  a  soldier,  with  soldiers,  to  a  seat,  seats,  of 
seats,  the  works,  of  a  soldier,  to  the  color,  of  a  rock,  a  seat, 
for  a  parent,  the  speech,  of  a  parent,  to  a  soldier,  the  color 
of  an  animal,  from  rocks,  to  rocks,  &c.  ad  libitum. 


§  13.  GENDER  OF  NOUNS  IN  THE  THIRD  DE¬ 
CLENSION. 

1.  MASCULINE  NOUNS. 


Rule  I. — Norms  inn ,  er ,  or,  es  increasing  in 
the  genitive,  and  os,  are  generally  masculine. 


24 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§  13 


Exceptions  in  N. 

Fem.  Sindon ,  cedon,  halcyon ,  and  icon ,  are  feminine. 

Neut.  Gluten ,  unguen,  inguen,  pollen ,  and  all  nouns  in  men  ;  as 
carmen ,  nomen,  etc.,  are  neuter. 

Exceptions  in  0, 

Fem.  1.  Nouns  in  io,  denoting  things  incorporeal,  are  feminine. 

2.  Nouns  in  do  and  go,  of  more  than  two  syllables,  with 

grando,  virgo,  and  sometimes  margo,  are  feminine. 
But  harpqgo,  comido,  unido  and  Cupido,  Cupid,  are  mas¬ 
culine.  Note.  Cupido,  desire,  in  prose,  is  always  femi¬ 
nine  j  in  poetry,  often  masculine. 

3.  Caro,  flesh,  is  feminine,  and  Greek  nouns  in  o  ;  as,  echo, 

Argo. 

Exceptions  in  ER. 

Fem.  Tuber,  the  tuber-tree,  and  sometimes  linter,  a  boat,  fem. 
Neut.  Acer,  cadaver,  cicer ,  iter,  laser ,  laver,  papdver,  piper,  siler , 
spinther,  suber,  tuber,  a  swelling,  uber,  ver,  verber,  zingi¬ 
ber,  and  sometimes  siser,  are  neuter. 

Exceptions  in  OR. 

Fem.  Arbor,  a  tree,  is  feminine.  §  7.  Obs.  2. 

Neut.  Ador,  cequor,  marmor,  and  cor,  the  heart,  are  neuter. 

Exceptions  in  ES,  increasing  in  the  genitive. 

Fem.  Compes,  merces,  merges,  quies,  requies,  inquies,  seges,  teges 
tudes,  and  sometimes  ales,  a  bird,  are  feminine. 

Neut.  AZs,  brass,  is  neuter. 

Exceptions  in  OS. 

Fem.  Arbos,  (§  7,  Obs.  2)  cos,  dos,  eos,  are  feminine. 

Neut.  Os,  the  mouth,  os,  a  bone;  also  the  Greek  chaos,  epos,  and 
melos,  are  neuter. 

2.  FEMININE  NOUNS. 

Rule  II — Nouns  in  as,  es  not  increasing 
in  the  genitive,  and  is ;  s,  after  a  consonant, 
and  x,  are  for  the  most  part  feminine. 

Exceptions  in  AS. 

Masc.  As,  a  piece  of  money,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  -antis,  masc. 
Neut.  Vas,  a  vessel,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  -atis,  are  neuter. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


25 


§  13 


Exceptions  in  ES ,  not  increasing  in  the  genitive. 

Masc.  Acinaces ,  coles,  and  sometimes  palumbes,  and  vepres,  masc 
Neut.  Cacoethes,  hippomanes,  nepenthes ,  and  panaces ,  Greek,  neut. 

Exceptions  in  IS. 

Masc.  1.  Latin  nouns  in  nis ,  are  masc.  But  amnis,  cinis,  clunis , 
finis,  and  funis,  are  sometimes  feminine.  Fines,  boun¬ 
daries,  in  the  plural  is  always  masculine. 

2.  The  following  nouns  are  masculine,  viz  : 


Axis, 

Cossis, 

Lapis, 

Semissis. 

Aqualis, 

Cucumis, 

Mensis, 

Sentis. 

Callis, 

Decussis, 

Mugilis, 

Sodalis 

Cassis, 

Ensis, 

Orbis, 

Torris. 

Caulis,  or  > 

Fascis, 

Piscis, 

Unguis. 

Colis,  5 

Follis, 

Pollis, 

Yectis. 

Centussis, 

Fustis, 

Postis, 

Yermis. 

Collis, 

Glis, 

Sanguis, 

Vomis. 

Masc.  or  Fem.  Anguis,  canalis ,  cenchris,  corbis,  pulvis,  scrobis,  ti- 
gris,  torquis,  are  masculine  or  feminine. 

Exceptions  in  S,  after  a  consonant. 

Masc.  1.  Dens,  fons,  mons,  and  pons ;  also  chalybs,  ellops,  epops, 
gryps,  hydrops,  merops ,  and  seps,  are  masculine. 

2.  Nouns  in  ns ;  originally  participles,  and  compounds  of 
dens,  as  occidens,  oriens,  bidens ;  also  sextans,  quadrans, 
triens,  etc.,  parts  of  as,  are  masculine;  but  bidens,  a 
sheep,  is  feminine. 

Masc.  or  Fem.  Adeps,  forceps,  rudcns ,  scrobs,  serpens ,  stirps. 

Note.  Animans,  a  living  creature,  is  of  all  genders 

Exceptions  in  X. 

Masc.  1.  AX.  Corax,  cordax,  dropax,  styrax,  thorax ,  are  masc. 

2.  EX.  All  nouns  in  ex  are  masculine,  except  lex,  nex,  sup- 

pcllex,  feminine;  cortex,  imbrex,  obex,  rumex,  silex, 
sometimes  feminine;  grex  and  pumex ,  rarely  fe¬ 
minine;  and  atriplex,  neuter. 

3.  IX.  Calix,  fornix,  phoenix,  spadix,  are  masculine,  and 

sometimes  perdix  and  varix;  otherwise  feminine. 

4.  OX.  Box,  esox,  and  volvox,  are  masculine. 

5.  TJX.  Tradux,  is  masculine. 

6.  YX.  Bombyx,  a  silk  worm,  calyx,  coccyx,  oryx,  are  mas¬ 

culine;  but  onyx,  and  sandyx ,  are  masc.  or  fem. 

7.  NX.  Quincunx,  septunx,  decunx,  deunx,  parts  of  as,  are 

masculine;  lynx,  is  masculine  or  feminine. 

Calx,  lime,  is  feminine;  calx,  the  heel,  masc.  or  feminine. 
Bombyx,  silk,  is  feminine. 

Neut.  Atriplex ,  gold-herb,  is  neuter. 


26 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


§  15 


3.  NEUTER  NOUNS. 

Rule  III. — Nouns  in  a,  e,  i,  c  and  t ,  are  al¬ 
ways  neuter;  those  in  l,  ar,  ur,  and  us,  are  al¬ 
most  always  neuter. 


Exceptions  in  L. 

Masc.  Mngil,  and  sol,  are  masculine;  sal,  in  the  singular,  is  mas¬ 
culine  or  feminine;  in  the  plural,  always  masculine. 

Exceptions  in  AR  and  UR. 

Masc.  Furfur,  salar,  turtur,  and  vultur ,  are  masculine 

Exceptions  in  US. 

Masc.  Lepus ,  mus,  and  Greek  nouns  in  pus  (except  lagopus,  femi¬ 
nine),  are  masculine. 

Fjsm.  Nouns  in  us,  having  utis,  or  vdis,  in  the  genitive;  also  pecus, 
•  udis,  tellus,  fraus,  laus  and  lagopus,  are  feminine.  Grus , 
is  masculine  or  feminine. 


§  15.  EXCEPTIONS  IN  DECLENSION. 
THE  ACCUSATIVE  SINGULAR. 


1.  The  following  nouns  in  -is  have  -im  in  the  Accusative. 


Amussis,  f.a  measure, rule. 
Buris,  f.  the  beam  of  a  plough. 
Canabis,  f.  hemp. 

Cucumis,  m.  a  cucumber. 
Gummis,  f.  gum. 

Mephitis,  f.  a  strong  smell. 


Ravis,  f.  a  hoarseness. 
Sinapis,  f.  mustard: 
Sitis,  f.  thirst. 

Tussis,  f.  a  cough. 

Vis,  f.  strength. 


2.  Proper  names  in  -is  have  -im  in  the  Accusative ;  viz. 

Names  of  cities  and  other  places  ;  as,  Bilbilis ,  f.  a  city  of 
Spain ;  Syrtis ,  f.  a  quicksand  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

Names  of  rivers  ;  as  Tiberis ,  m.  the  Tiber ;  Bcetis ,  m. 
the  Guadalquiver. 

Names  of  Gods ;  as,  Anubis ,  m.  Osiris,  m.  Egyptian 
Deities. 

Note. — These  nouns  have  sometimes  - in  in  the  Accusative 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


27 


$  15 


3.  The  following  nouns  in  -is  have  -em,  or  •im  in  the  Ac¬ 
cusative  j  viz. 


Aqualis,  f.  a  waterpot. 


Puppis,  f.  the  stern  of  a  ship. 


Clavis,  f.  a  key. 
Cutis,  f.  the  skin. 


Restis,  f.  a  rope. 
Securis,  f.  an  axe. 


Febris,  f.  a  fever. 


Sementis,  f.  a  sowing. 
Strigilis,  f.  a  curry-comb. 
Turris,  f.  a  tower. 


Lens,  f.  lentiles. 
Navis,  f.  a  ship. 


Pelvis,  f.  a  bason. 

Note  1. — Puppis,  restis,  securis  and  turris  have  generally  -im,  the 
others  commonly  -em.  The  oldest  Latin  writers  form  the  accusative 
of  some  other  nouns,  in  -im;  as,  avis,  auris. 

4.  Nouns  which  have  been  adopted  from  the  Greek,  some¬ 
times  retain  a  in  the  Accusative  ;  as,  heros ,  m.  a  hero,  heroa; 
Tros ,  m.  a  Trojan,  Troa.  See  No.  13. 

Note  2. — This  form  is  seldom  used  by  the  best  prose  writers  and  is 
chiefly  confined  to  proper  names,  except  in  -aer,  m.  the  air  ;  aether , 
m.  the  sky  ;  delphin,  m.  a  dolphin  •  Pan,  m.  the  god  of  the  shep¬ 
herds,  which  commonly  have  aera,  ceth&ra,  delphina,  and  Pana.  , 

Ohs.  1.  Many  Greek  nouns  in  -es  have  -en,  as  well  as  -era 
in  the  Accusative  ;  as,  Eujjhraten ,  Oresten,  Pyladen. 


ABLATIVE  SINGULAR. 


5.  Nouns  in  -is  which  have  -im  in  the  Accusative, 
have  -i  in  the  Ablative ;  as,  sitis ,  sitim,  siti. 

But  cannabis ,  Bcctis,  sindpis  and  Tigris ,  have  -e  or  -i. 

6.  Nouns  in  -is  which  have  -em  or  -im  in  the 
Accusative,  have  -e  or  -i  in  the  Ablative;  as. 
clavis,  clave  or  clavi. 

Note  3.  But  cutis,  and  restis  have  -e  only;  securis,  sementis,  and 
strigilis,  have  seldom  - e . 

7.  The  following  nouns  which  have  -era  in  the  Accusative 
have  -e  or  -i  in  the  Ablative  :  viz. 

Amnis,  m.  a  river.  Occiput,  n .the  hind-head. 

A.nguis,  m.  and  f.  a  snake  Orbis,  m.  a  circle. 

A vis.  f.  a  bird.  Pars,  f.  a  part 


28 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Civis  c.  a  citizen. 
Classis,  f.  a  jleet. 

Finis,  m.  and  f.  an  end. 
Fustis,  m.  a  staff. 

Ignis,  m.  a  fire. 

Imber,  m.  a  shower. 
Mugil,  m.  a  mullet. 


§  IB 

Postis,  m.  a  door  post. 

Pugil,  c.  a  pugilist. 

Rus,  n.  the  country 
Sors,  f.  a  lot. 

Supellex,  f.  furniture. 

Unguis,  m.  a  nail. 

Vectis,  m .a  lever. 


Note  4.  Finis,  mugil,  occiput,  pugil ,  rus,  supellex,  and  vectis,  have 
•e  or  - i  indifferently  ,•  the  others  have  much  more  frequently  -e. 

Obs.  2.  Names  of  Towns,  when  they  denote  the  place  in 
or  at  which  any  thing  is  done,  take  - e ,  or  -i;  as  Carthagine , 
or  Carthagini. 

Obs.  3.  Candlis,  m.  or  f.  a  water  pipe,  has  canali  only. 
Likewise  names  of  months  in  -is,  or  - er ;  as  Aprilis ,  Sep¬ 
tember,  Aprili,  Septembri ;  and  those  nouns  in  -is,  which 
were  originally  adjectives ;  as,  cedilis,  affinis,  bipennis,  fa- 
milidris ,  natdlis,  rivalis ,  soddlis,  volucris,  fyc.  This  class 
of  nouns  also  admits  -e  in  the  Ablative :  Rudis,  f.  a  rod,  and 
juvenis,  c.  a  youth,  have  -e  only. 

8.  The  following  Neuter  Nouns  in  -al  and  - ar  have  -e  in 
the  Ablative :  viz. 

Baccar,  lady’s  glove.  Jubar,  a  sunbeam.  Sal,  salt. 

Far,  corn.  Nectar,  nectar. 

Obs.  4.  Par,  when  used  as  a  substantive,  forms  the  Abla¬ 
tive  Singular,  and  Genitive  Plural,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
Adjective.  §21.  Rule  2. 


GENITIVE  PLURAL 

[See  Rules,  §  12.] 

9.  The  following  Nounshave  - ium  in  the  Genitive  Plural: 

Caro,  f.  fiesh.  Fauce,  f.  the  jaws.  Nox,  f.  night. 

Cohors,  f.  a  cohort.  Lar,  m.  a  household  god.  Os,  n.  a  bone. 

Cor,  n.  the  heart.  Linter,  m.  or  f.  a  boat.  Qulris,  m.  a  Roman. 
Cos,  f.  a  whetstone.  Mus,  m.  a  mouse.  Samnis,  m.  a  Samnite. 
Dos,  f.  a  dowry.  Nix,  f.  snow.  Uter,  m.  a  bottle. 

Obs.  5.  The  compounds  of  uncia  and  as  have  likewise  - ium ;  as 
Septunx,  m.  seven  ounces  Septuncium  ;  Sextans,  m.  two  ounces,  Sex 
tantium 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


29 


§15 

Obs  6.  Jlpis,  f.  a  bee,  has  apum  and  ayium ;  oyis,  f.  power,  has 
opum  only.  Gryps,  m.  a  griffon  ;  lynx,  m.  or  f.  a  lynx  ;  and  Sphinx, 
f.  the  Sphinx,  have  -um.  Bos,  c.  gen.  bSvis,  an  ox,  has  bourn. 

DATIVE  PLURAL. 

10.  Bos  c.  an  ox  has  bobus  or  bubus  in  the  Dative  Plural ;  and 
sus,  c.  a  sow,  has  suibus,  or  subus.  Nouns  in  -ma,  have  • tis  as  well 
as  -tibus  ;  as  po'ema,  n.  a  poem,  poematibus  or  poemdtis.  The  Greek 
termination  - si  or  -sin  is  very  uncommon  in  prose,  and  is  admissible 
only  in  words  purely  Greek.  See  No.  13. 

ACCUSATIVE  PLURAL. 

11.  The  form  of  the  Accusative  Plural  in  -as  is  admissible  in  all 
words  which  have  that  termination  in  Greek,  but  is  rarely  used  in 
Prose.  Livy,  however,  frequently  uses  Maceddnas  ;  and  Allobrbgas 
is  found  in  Ccesar. 

12.  Some  nouns  of  the  third  Declension  are  somewhat  pe¬ 
culiar  in  different  cases,  as  follows: 


Jupiter. 

V is,  force,  power,  Fem. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

N.  Jupiter, 

N.  vis, 

N.  vlr-es, 

G.  Jov-is, 

G.  vis, 

G.  vir-ium, 

D.  Jov-i, 

D.  -, 

D.  vlr-ibus 

^4c.  Jov-em, 

Ac.  vim, 

_dc.  vlr-es, 

V.  Jupiter, 

V.  vis, 

V.  vlr-es, 

Ab.  Jov-e. 

Ab.  vi. 

Ab.  vlr-ibus 

Bos,  an  ox ,  or  cow ,  Masc.  or  Fem. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

N.  bos, 

N.  bov-es, 

G.  bov-is, 

G.  bourn, 

D.  bov-i, 

D.  bobus,  or 

bubus,* 

Ac.  bov-em, 

Ac.  bov-es, 

V.  bos, 

V.  bov-es, 

Ab.  bov-e. 

Ab.  bobus,  or 

bubus. 

*  Contracted  for  bovibus . 


3* 


30 


FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


§  16 


13.  GREEK  NOUNS  THROUGH  ALL  THE  CASES. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Ahl 

S.  Lamp-as, 

-adis,  or  ados, 

-adi, 

-adem,  or  -ada, 

-as. 

-ade. 

Pi.  Lamp-ades, 

,  -adum, 

-adibus, 

-ades,  or  adas, 

-ades, 

-adibus 

S.  Tro-as, 

-adis,  or  -ados, 

-adi, 

-adibus, 

-adem,  or  ada, 

-as, 

( 

-ade. 

-adibus, 

PI.  Tro-ades, 

■adum,  | 

-asi,  or 
-a  sin, 

-ades,  or  -adas, 

-ades,  ? 

-asi,  or 
-asin. 

S.  Tros, 

Trois, 

Troi, 

Troem,  or  Troa, 

Tros, 

Troe. 

S.  Phyll-is, 

-idis,  or  -idos, 

-idi, 

-idem,  or  -ida, 

-i,  or  -is 

,-ide. 

S.  Par-is, 

-idis,  or  -idos, 

-idi, 

-idem,  -im,  or  -in 

rh 

-ide. 

S.  Chlam-ys, 

-ydis,  or  -ydos, 

-ydi, 

-ydem,  or  -ida, 

*ys, 

-yde. 

S.  Cap-ys, 

-yis,  or  -yos, 

-yi, 

-ym,  or  -yn, 

*y> 

-ye. 

S.  Hasres-is, 

-is,  or  -eos, 

-im,  or  -in, 

-i. 

-i. 

S.  Orph-eus, 

-eos,  or-ei,  or  ei, 

-ei,  or  -ei, 

-ea, 

-eu, 

-eo. 

S.  Did-o, 

-us,  or  onis, 

-o,  or  -oni, 

-o,  or  -onem, 

-0, 

-o,  or -one. 

§  16.  THE  FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

The  Fourth  Declension  has  two  terminations, 
-us  and  -u.  Nouns  in  -us  are  Masculine.  Those 
in  -u  are  Neuter,  and  indeclinable  in  the  singular 
number. 


Singular . 

TERMINATIONS. 

Plural. 

Masc. 

Masc. 

Neut. 

N.  -us, 

N.  -us, 

-ua, 

G.  -us, 

G.  -uum, 

-uum, 

-lbus, 

D.  -ui, 

D.  -lbus, 

Ac.  -um, 

Ac.  -us, 

-ua, 

V.  -us, 

V.  -us, 

-ua, 

Ab.  -u. 

Ab.  -lbus. 

-lbus. 

Fructus,  fruit ,  Masc. 

Singular . 

Plural. 

Thus  decline. 

N.  fruct-us, 

N.  fruct-us, 

G.  fruct-us, 

G.  fruct-uum, 

Casus,  a  fall. 

D.  fruct-ui, 

D.  fruct-ibus, 

Currus,  a  chariot 

Ac.  fruct-um, 

Ac.  fruct-us, 

Fluctus,#  viave. 

V.  fruct-us, 

V.  fruct-us, 

Gradus,  a  step , 

Ab,  fruct-u. 

Ab.  fruct-ibus, 

FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


31 


Singular. 
N.  cornu, 
G.  cornu, 
D.  cornu, 
Ac.  cornu, 
V.  cornu, 
Ab.  cornu. 


Cornu,  a  horn ,  Neut. 


Plural. 

N.  corn-ua, 
G.  corn-uum, 
D.  corn-ibus, 
Ac.  corn-ua, 
V.  corn-ua, 
Ab.  corn-ibus. 


Thus  decline. 

Gelu,  ice . 
Genu,  the  knee. 
Tonitru,  thunder. 
Veru,  a  spit. 


ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES. 

Flatus,  a  blast.  Motus,  a  motion.  Ritus,  a  ceremony. 

Ictus,  a  stroke.  Nutus,  a  nod.  Sinus,  a  bosom. 

Manus,  f.  the  hand.  Passus,  a  pace.  Situs,  a  situation. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

Exc.  1.  The  following  nouns  are  feminine  :  viz. 

Acus,  a  needle.  Ficus,  a  fig.  Porticus,  a  gallery. 

Anus,  an  old  woman.  Milnus,  the  hand.  Specus,  a  den* 
Dbmus,  a  house.  Penus,*  a  storehouse.  Tribus,  a  tribe. 

*  Sometimes  masculine. 


EXCEPTIONS  IN  DECLENSION. 

Exc.  2.  The  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular : — In  some  wri¬ 
ters  the  Genitive  Singular  is  occasionally  found  in  - uis  ;  as, 
ejus  anuis  causa ,  for  anils.  Terence.  In  others  the  Dative 
is  sometimes  found  in  -u ;  as,  resistere  impetu ,  for  impetui  ; 
Esse  usu  sibi ,  for  usui ,  Cic. 

Exc.  3.  The  Genitive , — and  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plu¬ 
ral  : — The  Genitive  Plural  is  sometimes  contracted  ;  as,  cur - 
nlm ,  for  curruum.  The  following  nouns  have  - ubus  instead 
of  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural :  viz. 

Acus,  a  needle.  Lacus,  a  lake.  Specus,  a  den. 

Arcus,  a  bow.  Partus,  a  birth.  Tribus,  a  tribe. 

Artus,  a  joint.  Portus,*  a  harbour.  Veru,*  a  spit 

Genu,*  the  knee. 

*  These  words  have  also  -ibus. 

Obs.  1.  Nouns  of  this  declension  seem  to  have  belonged 
anciently  to  the  third,  and  were  declined  like  grus ,  gruis , 
thus,  fructus,  fructu-is,  fructu-i,  &c.  So  that  all  the  cases 


32  FIFTH  DECLENSION.  §  17 

except  the  Dative  Singular  and  the  Genitive  Plural  may  be 
regarded  as  contracted  forms  of  that  declension. 

Obs.  2.  Several  nouns  of  this  declension  are  in  whole  or 
in  part  of  the  second  also,  such  as,  Ficus,  penus ,  domus  and 
several  others.  Capricornus ,  m.  and  the  compounds  of  ma- 
nus ,  as,  unimanus ,  Centimanus,  &c.,  are  always  of  the  se 
cond. 

Obs.  3.  Jesus  the  name  of  the  Saviour  has  - um  in  the  Ac¬ 
cusative,  and  -u  in  all  the  other  cases. 


Domus,  a  house ,  Fem.  is  thus  declined. 


Smgular. 

N.  dom-us, 

G.  dom-tis,  or  -i, 
D.  dom-ui,  or  -o, 
Ac.  dom-um, 

V.  dom-us, 

Ab.  dom-o. 


Plural. 

N.  dom-us, 

G.  dom-orum,  or  -uum, 
D.  dom-ibus, 

Ac.  dom-us,  or  -os, 

V.  dom-us, 

Ab.  dom-ibus. 


Note. — Domus  in  the  Genitive,  signifies  of  a  house. 
only  to  signify  at  home,  or  of  home. 


Domi  is  used 


EXERCISES  ON  THE  FOURTH  DECLENSION 

1.  Tell  the  gender ,  number  and  case  of  the  following 
words  from  the  paradigm  and  additional  examples,  pp.  30, 
and  31,  and  translate. 

Fructus,  fructtis,  fructuum,  flatibus,  flatu,  manuum,  mani- 
bus,  nutu,  passuum,  passibus,  passes,  cornua,  tonitrlbus,  ve- 
rubus,  casu,  currum,  currui,  fluctu,  fluctibus,  cormbus,  &c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  words  into  Latin  and  tell  the 
gender,  number  and  case  in  which  the  words  are  put:  viz. 

Of  fruit,  to  fruit,  with  the  hand,  for  the  hand,  of  a  horn, 
to  a  horn,  with  a  horn,  from  horns,  horns,  the  horns,  of  the 
chariot,  for  a  chariot,  of  chariots,  from  the  waves,  for  the 
waves,  from  his  hands,  with  a  nod,  &c. 

§  17.  THE  FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

The  Fifth  Declension  has  hut  one  termination, 
namely,  -es;  as,  res ,  a  thing ;  dies ,  a  day. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION. 


33 


5  17 


All  nouns  of  this  declension  are  Feminine  except  dies,  a. 
day,  which  is  masculine  or  feminine  in  the  singular,  and  al¬ 
ways  masculine  in  the  plural;  and  meridies,  the  mid-day, 
which  is  masculine  in  the  singular  and  wants  the  plural. 


Dies,  a  day . 

TERMINATIONS. 

Singular . 

Plural. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

N.  di-es, 

N.  di-es, 

-es, 

-es, 

G.  di-ei, 

G.  di-erum, 

-Si 

-erum, 

D.  di-ei, 

D.  di-ebus, 

-el, 

-ebus. 

Ac.  di-em, 

Ac.  di-es, 

-em, 

-es, 

V.  di-es. 

V '.  di-es, 

-es, 

-es, 

Ab.  di-e. 

Ab.  di-ebus. 

-e. 

-ebus. 

Obs.  1.  Dies  and  res  are  the  only  nouns  of  the  Fifth  De¬ 
clension  which  have  the  Plural  complete ;  acies ,  effigies,  fa¬ 
cies,  series,  species  and  spes,  in  the  Plural  have  only  the  Nomi¬ 
native,  Accusative,  and  Vocative;  the  others  have  no  plural. 


Singular . 
N.  faci-es, 
G.  faci-ei, 
D.  faci-ei, 
Ac.  faci-em, 
V.  faci-es, 
Ab.  faci-e. 


Facies,  the  face,  Fern. 


Plural. 
N.  faci-es, 

G.  - 

D.  - 

Ac.  faci-es, 
V.  faci-es. 
Ab. - 


Thus  decline . 

Effigies,  an  image . 
Series,  a  series . 
Spes,-e'i,  hope . 
Acies,  an  army . 


Exc.  The  poets  sometimes  make  the  Genitive,  and  more 
rarely  the  Dative  singular  in  -e;  &§,fide,iov  fidei.  Ov.  Re- 
quies ,  is  both  of  the  third  and  fifth  declension. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

1 .  Tell  the  gender ,  number  and  case  of  the  following  nouns , 
and  translate: — Diei,  spei,aeiem,  acie,  faciei,  facies,  diebus, 
dierum,  dies,  faciem,  effigiem,  series,  rerum,  diebus,  diem,  &c. 
ad  libitum . 

2.  Translate  the  following  English  words  into  Latin  and 


34 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


§  18 

tell  the  gender ,  &c : — The  image,  of  the  face,  the  things,  of 
the  army ;  the  hope,  of  the  army,  a  series,  of  days,  to  a  day, 
from  the  days,  with  the  army,  to  an  image,  with  faith,  &c. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  ON  ALL  THE  DECLENSIONS. 

Tell  the  gender,  declension,  case  and  number  of  the  following 
nouns,  in  the  order  here  mentioned,  and  give  the  translation  ;  thus, 
Pennd ,  A  noun,  fern,  first  ;  in  the  Ablative  singular,  with  a  pen* 

Via,  pueri,  genero,  ventis,  puerorum,  sermo,  sedlle,  sedlli, 
sedilium,  sedilibus,  fructuum,  fructus,  sellse,  tubam,  regno, 
templi,  dies,  rerum,  capite,  capitum,  itineribus,  partis,  pa- 
rentibus,  rupe,  urbis,  vulpem,  vulpibus,  parente,  sedilia,  die, 
colorem,  militis,  militibus,  sermones,  honore,  manus,  manus, 
manibus,  faciem,  ala,  tubam,  mensarum,  bellum,  dominorum, 
templum,  puerorum,  bella,  bello,  &c. 

Translate  the  following  into  Latin,  and  state  the  gender,  declension, 
case  and  number,  always  following  the  same  order  :  thus,  “  Of  boys, M 
puerorum ,  Noun,  masc.  second ;  in  the  Genitive  plural.* 

From  the  way,  to  a  speech,  with  a  part,  of  a  seat,  of  seats, 
to  the  wind,  a  kingdom,  to  a  boy,  of  boys,  with  lords,  foxes, 
of  tables,  to  parents,  with  seats,  of  soldiers,  from  the  head, 
heads,  to  a  part,  with  a  trumpet,  in  a  time,  of  war,  the  time, 
of  peace,  in  a  journey,  to  a  seat,  of  a  rock,  to  sons-in-law, 
with  fruit,  of  the  face,  with  a  seat,  to  tables,  of  rocks,  &c. 


§  18.  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

Irregular  Nouns  are  divided  into  Variable ,  Defective  and 
Redundant, 

*  Words  used  in  the  above  exercises  ;  the  declension  is  indicated 
by  the  genitive  according  to  §  8. 

Ala,  -se,  a  wing.  Iter,  itineris,  a  way.  Sedile,  -is,  a  seat. 
Bellum,  -i,  war.  Manus,  -us,  a  hand.  Sella,  -se,  a  seat. 

Caput,  -His,  the  head.  Mensa,  -se,  a  table.  Sermo,  -onis  a  speech 
Color,  -is,  color.  Miles,  -Itis,  a  soldier.  Templum,  -i,  a  temple 
Dies,  -ei,  a  day.  Parens,  -tis,  a  parent.  Tempus,  -oris,  time. 
Dominus,  -i,  a  lord.  Pars,  -tis,  a  part.  Tuba,  -ae,  a  trumpet. 
Facies,  -ei,  the  face.  Puer,  -i,  a  boy.  Urbs,  -is,  a  city. 

Fructus,  -us ,  fruit.  Regnum, -i,  a  kingdom. Ventus,  -i  the  wind 
Gener,  -i,  a  son-in-laiv. Res,  rei,  a  thing.  Via,  -se,  a  way. 

Honor,  -is,  honor.  Rupes,  -is,  a  rock.  Vulpes,  -is  a  fox. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


35 


§  18 


I.  VARIABLE  NOUNS. 

Nouns  are  variable  either  in  Gender  or  Declension,  or  in 
both.  Nouns  varying  in  gender  are  called,  Heterogeneous, 
Those  which  vary  in  declension  are  called,  Heter oolites. 

Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

1.  Masculine  in  the  Singular,  and  Neuter  in  the  Plural;  as, 

Avernus,  a  hill  in  Campania.  Pangaeus,  a  promontory  in  Thrace. 

Dindymus,  a  hill  in  Phrygia.  Tsenarus,  a  promontory  in  Laconia. 

Ismarus,  a  hill  in  Thrace.  Tartarus,  hell. 

lVjaenalus,  a  hill  in  Arcadia.  Taygetus,  a  hill  in  Laconia. 

2.  Masc.  in  the  Singular,  Masc.  and  Neut.  in  the  Plural; 
as,  Joans,  a  jest,  PL  -i  and  -a.  Locus ,  a  place,  PL  -i  and  -a. 

3.  Feminine  in  the  Singular,  Neuter  in  the  Plural;  as, 
Carbasus ,  a  sail,  PL  -a.  Pergdmus ,  the  citadel  of  Troy,  PL  -a. 

4.  Neuter  in  the  Singular,  Masculine  in  the  Plural;  as 
Argos,  Argos,  a  city  in  Greece,  PL  -i.  Elysium,  the  Ely- 
sian  fields,  PL  -i.  Coelum ,  heaven,  PL  -i. 

Note  1. — Argos ,  in  the  Singular,  is  used  only  in  the  Nom.  and  Acc. 

5.  Neut.  in  the  Sing,  Masc.  and  Neut.  in  the  Plural;  as, 
Frenum ,  a  bridle,  PL  -i  and  -a.  East  rum,  a  rake,  Pl.  -i,  and  -a. 

6.  Neuter  in  the  Singular,  Feminine  in  the  Plural;  as, 
Balneum ,  a  bath,  PL  -ce  and  -a.  Ejpulum,  a  banquet,  PL 
-os.  JDelicium,  a  delight,  PL  -ce. 

Heter  oolites. 

7.  Vas ,  vasis,  n.  a  vessel,  of  the  3d  declension,  Plur.  vasa, 
vasdrum,  of  the  2d.  Jugerum ,  jugeri,  n,  an  acre,  of  the  2d 
declension,  Plur.  juger a,  jugerum,  of  the  3d.  Jugeris  and 
jugere  from  jugus,  are  also  found  in  the  Singular.  See 

Num.  11. 

8.  Some  Greek  Proper  nouns  are  declined  both  by  the  se¬ 
cond  Declension  and  the  third,  as  follows : 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Acc.  Voc.  Abl. 

Orpheus,  | 

-ei, 

-eos, 

-eo, 

-ei, 

-eum-  or  -eon, -  -eo; 

-ea,  -eu,  - ; 

2d  Deck 
3d  Decl. 

CEdipus,  | 

-L 

-odis, 

*o, 

-odi, 

-um,  -  -o; 

-odem,  -u,  -ode ; 

2d  Deck 
3d  Decl. 

Achilleus, 

-ei, 

-eo, 

-  -eu,  -eo; 

2d  Decl. 

Achilles 

-lip  or 

•leos,  -li. 

-lem,  or  -len.  -les, or -le,  -le; 

3d  Decl. 

36 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


§  18 


DOUBLE  NOUNS. 

9.  To  this  class  may  be  referred  a  few  double  nouns,  the 
parts  of  which  are  of  different  declensions.  When  the  two  no¬ 
minatives  combine,  both  parts  are  declined  like  a  substantive 
and  adjective :  thus, 


Respublica,  a 

Singular. 

N.  respublica, 

G.  reipublicae, 

D.  reipublicae, 

Ac.  rempublicam, 
V.  respublica, 

Ab.  republica. 


commonwealth ,  Fern. 
Plural. 

N.  respublicae, 

G.  rerumpublicarum, 
D.  rebuspublicis, 

Ac.  respublicas, 

V.  respublicae, 

Ab.  rebuspublicis. 


JUSJURANDUM, 

Singular. 

N.  jusjurandum, 

G.  jurisjurandi, 

D.  jurijurando, 

Ac.  jusjurandum, 

V.  jusjurandum, 

Ab.  j  urej  urando. 


an  oath ,  Neut. 
Plural. 

N.  jurajuranda, 


G. 


D. - 

Ac.  j  uraj  uranda, 
V.  jurajuranda, 
Ab. - 


When  the  one  part  is  a  nominative,  and  the  other  an  ob¬ 
lique  case,  the  part  in  the  nominative  only  is  declined ;  as, 


Materfamilias,  a  mistress  of  a  family,  Fem. 

Singular. 

N.  materfamilias, 

G.  matrisfamilias, 

D.  matrifamilias, 

Ac.  matremfamilias, 

V.  materfamilias, 

Ab.  matrefamilias. 


Note  2. — Familias  is  an  old  form  of  the  genitive,  and  is  governed 
by  mater.  So  Paterfamilias. 


II.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 
Nouns  are  defective  in  Cases  or  Number . 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


37 


Obs.  1.  Indeclinable  nouns ,  i.  e.  nouns  which  have  the 
same  form  in  all  cases,  though  commonly  ranked  under  this 
class,  do  not  properly  belong  to  it,  because  none  of  the  cases 
are  wanting.  They  are  such  as  pondo ,  n.  a  pound  or  pounds  ; 
semis,  n.  the  half;  mille,  a  thousand;  ccepe,  an  onion;  opus , 
need  or  needful,  used  both  as  a  substantive  and  an  adjective. 
To  these  may  be  added  any  word  used  as  a  noun;  as,  velle , 
in  the  phrase,  suum  velle ,  (for  sua  voluntas,')  his  own  inclina¬ 
tion  :  Proper  names  adopted  from  a  foreign  language ;  as, 
Elizabet,  Jerusalem,  &c. 


I.  Nouns  defective  in  particular  cases . 

10.  The  following  nouns  are  used  only  in  one  case.* 


Nom. 

Inquies,  f.  want  of  rest.  • 
Ml. 

AdmonHu,  m.  an  admonition. 
Ambage,  f.  a  winding. 

Casse,  m.  a  net. 

Diu,  by  day. 

Ergo,  on  account  of. 


Fauce,  f.  the  j axes. 
Ingratiis,  f.  in  spite  of. 
Injussu,  m.  without  order. 
Interdiu,  by  day. 

Natu,  m.  by  birth. 

Noctu,  f.  by  night. 
Promptu,  m.  in  readiness. 


Obs.  2.  Many  verbal  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are 
used  only  in  the  Ablative  Singular ;  as,  accitu,  promptu ,  &c. 
Dicis,  f.  and  nauci,  n.  are  used  only  in  the  Gen.  Sing. ;  as, 
dicis  gratia ,  for  forms’  sake ;  res  nauci,  a  thing  of  no  value. 
Injicias,  f.  and  incita,  f.  or  inettas,  have  only  the  Acc.  Plur ; 
as,  inficias  ire,  to  deny ;  ad  incitas  reductus ,  reduced  to  ex¬ 
tremities.  Ambages ,  casses  and  fauces,  are  regularly  declin¬ 
ed  in  the  Plural. 


11.  The  following  nouns  are  used  only  in  two  cases. 
Nom.  and  Acc.  Gen.  and  Abl. 

Astu,  n.  the  city  of  Athens.  Compedis,  -e,  f.  a  fetter. 

Interim, -as  f.  sacrifices  to  the  dead.  Impetis,  -e,  m.  force. 


Instar,  n.  likeness,  bigness. 
Suppetiae,  -as,  f.  help. 

Nom.  and  Abl. 

Astus,  -u,  in.  cunning. 

Vesper, -e,  or  -i,  m.  the  evening. 


Jugeris,  -e,  n.  an  acre. 

Spontis,  -e,  f.  of  one’s  own  accord. 
Verberis,-e,  n.  a  stripe. 
Repetundarum,  -is,  f.  extortion. 


*  Nouns  which  are  used  only  in  one  case  are  called  Mcr.optotes ; 
in  two  cases,  Diptotes  ;  in  three  cases,  Triptotes ;  in  four  cases.  T*> 
traptotes  ;  in  five  cases,  Pentaptotes. 

4 


38 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


Obs.  3.  Compedes,  jugera  and  verbera  are  regularly  de 
dined  in  the  Plural.  Astus  is  found  in  the  Nom.  and  Acc 

Plur. 

12.  The  following  nouns  are  used  only  in  three  Cases, 


Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc. 
Cacoethes,  n.  a  bad  custom. 
Also  other  Greek  nouns  in  - es . 
Cete,  n.  whales. 

Dica,  -am,  f.  a  process  ;  PI.  -as. 
Nefas,  n.  impiety. 

Nihil,  and  Nil,n.  nothing. 
Tempe,  n.  the  vale  of  Tempe. 


No?n.  Acc.  and  Abl. 
Lues.  f.  a  plague. 

Epos.  n.  a  heroic  poem. 

Fas,  n.  divine  law. 

Grates,  f.  thanks. 

Melos,  n.  a  song  ;  PI.  e. 
Mane,  -e,  -e.  n.  the  morning. 
Tabes,  f.  consumption. 
Vepres,  or  -is,  m.  a  brier , 


Nom.  Gen.  and  Abl.  Tabum,  n.  putrid  gore. 
Nom.  Gen.  and  Acc.  Munia,  -orum,  n.  offices. 


Opis,  f.  Gen.  help  (from  ops,)  has  opem  and  ope  in  the  Acc.  nun 
Ablative,  with  the  Plural  complete,  opes,  opum,  &c.  wealth  ;  and 
preci,  f.  Dat.  a  prayer,  (from  prex,)  has  precem  and  prece,  with  the 
Plural  entire,  preces,  precum,  &c.  Feminis,  n.  Gen.  the  thigh  (from 
femen,)  has  femini ,  and  -e,  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Singular  ;  and  femina 
in  the  Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc.  Plural. 


Obs.  4.  Vepres  has  the  Plural  entire ;  and  tabes  and  grati- 
bus ,  the  Nominative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  tabes,  and  grates 
are  also  found. 

The  following  Nouns  want  the  Genitive,  Dative  and  Abla¬ 
tive  Plural. 


Far,  n.  corn.  Mel,  n  honey.  Rus,  n.  the  country. 

Hiems ,  f.  winter.  Metus,  m.  fear.  Thus,  n  .frankincense 


For  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension,  see  §17. 

13.  The  following  Nouns  want  the  Nominative  and  Voca¬ 
tive,  and  are  therefore  used  only  in  four  Cases. 

Ditionis,  f.  power.  Sordis,  f.  filth . 

Pecudis,  f.  a  beast.  Vicis,  f.  a  change. 

To  these  may  be  added  daps,  f.  a  dish  ;  frux ,  f.  corn  ;  and  nex,  f 
slaughter,  which  are  seldom  used  in  the  Nominative.  The  Plural  of 
frux  is  entire  ;  daps  wants  the  Genitive  ;  and  nex  seems  to  have  the 
Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc.  only. 

Chaos ,  n.  a  confused  mass,  wants  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sin 
gular,  and  is  not  used  in  the  Plural. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS# 


39 


Obs.  5.  Pecudis  and  sordis  have  the  Plural  entire:  vicis  is 
defective  in  the  Genitive  ;  ditionis  has  no  Plural. 

14.  Some  Nouns  are  defective  in  one  Case. 


The  following  want  the  Genitive  Plural. 


Faex,  f.  dregs. 
Fax,  f.  a  torch. 
Labes,  f.  a  stain. 
Lux,  f.  light. 

Os,  n.  the  mouth. 


Proles,  f.  offspring. 
Ros,  m.  dew. 
Soboles,  f.  offspring 
Sol,  m.  the  sun. 


Satias,  f.  a  glut  of  any  thing,  and  salum,  n.  the  sea,  want  the  Gen. 
Sing,  and  the  Plural  entirely.  Situs,  m.  a  situation,  nastiness,  wants 
the  Gen.  and  perhaps  the  Dat.  Sing,  and  probably  the  Gen.  Dat.  and 
Abl.  Plural.  Nemo,  c.  nobody,  wants  theVoc.  Sing,  and  has  no  Plu¬ 
ral. 


II.  Many  Nouns  are  defective  in  number. 


15.  Some  Nouns,  from  the  nature  of  the  things  which  they 
express  cannot  be  used  in  the  Plural.  Such  are  the  names  of 
virtues  and  vices,  of  arts,  herbs,  metals,  liquors,  different 
kinds  of  corn,  abstract  nouns,  &c. :  as,  justitia ,  justice;  lux - 
us,  luxury;  mustca ,  music;  apium ,  parsley;  aurum,  gold; 
lac,  milk  ;  triiicum ,  wheat ;  magnitude),  greatness ;  senectus, 
old  age ;  macies ,  leanness,  &c.  But  some  of  the  Nouns  in¬ 
cluded  in  these  classes  are  occasionally  found  in  the  Plural. 

16.  The  following  Masculine  Nouns  are  scarcely  used  in 
the  Plural : 


Aer,  aeris,  the  air. 

JEther.  -eris,  the  sky. 

Fimus,  -i,  dung. 

Hesperus,  -i,  the  evening  star. 
Limus,  -i,  mud. 


Penus,  -i,  or  -us,  all  manner  of  pro 
visions. 

Pontus,  -i,  the  sea. 

Pulvis,  -eris,  dust. 

Sanguis,  -Inis,  blood. 

Sopor,  -oris,  sleep. 


Meridies,*iei,  mid-do; y. 

Mundus,  -i,  a  woman's  ornaments.  Veternus,  -i,  a  lethargy. 

Muscus,  -i,  moss. 

Note  3. — Aer.,  pulvis,  and  sopor  are  found  in  the  Plural. 

17.  The  following  Feminine  Nouns  are  scarcely  used  in 
the  Plural: 


Argilla,  -se,  potter's  earth.  Salus,  -utis,  safety. 

Fames,  -is,  hunger.  Sitis,  -is.  thirst. 


40 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


Humus,  *i,  the  ground.  Supellex,  -ctilis,  household  furnt 

Indoles,  -is,  a  disposition.  ture. 

Plebs,  -is,  the  common  people.  Venia,  -ae,  pardon. 

Pubes,  -is,  the  youth.  Vespera,  -ae,  the  evening. 

The  following  are  sometimes  found  in  the  Plural: 

Bilis,  -is,  bile.  Pituita,  -a;,  phlegm. 

Cholera,  -ae,  choler.  Pix,  -cis,  pitch. 

Cutis,  -is,  the  skin.  Proles,  -is,  offspring. 

Fama,  -as,  fame.  Quies,  -etis,  rest. 

Gloria,  -ae,  glory.  Sobdles,  -is,  offspring. 

Labes,  -is,  a  stain.  Tellus,  -uris,  the  earth 

Pax,  -cis,  peace. 

18.  The  following  Neuter  Nouns  are  scarcely  used  in  the 
Plural : 


Foenum,  -i,  hay. 

Gelu,  frost,  ind. 

Hilum,  -i,  the  black  speck  of  a  bean ; 
a  trifle. 

Penum,  -i,  and  penus,  -Oris,  all 


Album,  -i,  a  list  of  names. 

Barathrum,  -i,  any  deep  place. 

Diluculum,  -i,  the  dawn  of  day. 

Ebur,  -6ris,  ivory. 

Jubar,  -&ris,  the  sunbeam. 

Justitium,  -i,  a  vacation,  the  time  kinds  of  provisions. 

when  courts  do  not  sit.  Pus,  puris,  matter. 

Lardum,  -i,  bacon.  Sal,  salis,  salt. 

Lethum,  -i,  death.  Ver,  veris,  the  spring. 

Lutum,  -i,  clay.  Virus,  -i,  poison. 

Nectar  -aris,  nectar.  Vitrum,  -i,  glass. 

Pelagus,  -i,  the  sea.  Yiscum,  -i,  the  mistletoe. 

Vulgus,  -i,  the  rabble. 


Obs.  6.  Ebur ,  lardum,  lutum  and  pus  are  found  in  the  Plu¬ 
ral  ;  and  pelage  is  found,  in  some  cases,  as  the  Plural  of  pe¬ 
lagus  ;  sal ,  as  a  Neuter  Noun,  is  not  used  in  the  Plural. 

19.  Many  Nouns  want  the  Singular ;  as  the  Names  of 
feasts,  books,  games,  and  many  cities  and  places:  as, 


Apollin&res,  -ium,ga7nc5tn  honour  Olympia,  -oram, the  Olympic  games. 

of  Apollo.  Syracusae/arum,  Syracuse. 

Bacchanalia,  -ium,  and  orum,  the  Hierosolyma,  -orum,  Jerusalem. 

feasts  of  Bacchus.  Thermopylae,  -arum,  the  straits  of 

Bucolica,-orum,a  book  of  pastorals.  Thermopoylce. 

20.  The  following  Masculine  Nouns  are  scarcely  used  in 
the  Singular: 

Antes,  the  front  rows  of  tines.  Lemhres,  -um,  ghosts ,  hobgoblins 


§  18 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


41 


Cancelli,  lattices,  or  windows  made 
with  cross-bars. 

Cani,  gray  hairs. 

Celeres,  -um,  the  light-horse. 

Codicilli,  writings. 

Fasti,  orum,  or  fastus,  -uum,  ca¬ 
lendars, ,  in  which  were  marked 
festival-days ,  fyc. 

Fori,  the  gangways  of  a  ship,  or 
seats  in  the  Circus. 

Inferi,  the  gods  below. 

Obs.  7.  Liberi  and  proceres  ( procerem )  are  also  found  in 
the  Singular.  Some  of  the  others,  as,  inferi ,  majSres ,  &c. 
are  properly  Adjectives,  and  agree  with  the  Substantives 
which  are  implied  in  their  signification. 

21.  The  following  Feminine  Nouns  want  the  Singular: 


LibSri,  children. 

Majores,  -um,  ancestors 
Manes,  -ium,  ghosts. 

Minores,  -um,  successors. 

Penates,  -um,  or  -ium,  household 
gods. 

Posteri,  posterity. 

Proceres,  -um,  the  nobles. 
Pugillares,  -ium,  writing  tables. 
Superi,  the  gods  above. 


Clitellse,  a  pannier. 
Cun®,  a  cradle. 
Dir®,  imprecations. 
Divitiae,  riches. 
Excubise,  watches. 
Exsequi®,/wneraZs. 


Exuviae,  spoils. 
Feriae,  holidays. 
Gerrae,  trifles. 
Induci®,  a  truce. 


Insidiae,  snares. 
Kalendae,  Nonae,  Idus, 
-uum,  names  which 
the  Romans  gave  to 


Induviae,  clothes  to  put  certain  days  in  each 


on. 


month. 

Scop®,  a  besom. 
Tenebr®,  darkness. 
Therm®,  hot  baths. 
Trie®,  toys. 


Lades,  the  small  guts.  Nupti®,  a  marriage. 

Lapicidin® , stone  quar-  Parietin®,  ruinous, 
ries.  walls. 

Manubi®,  spoils  taken  Phaler®,  trappings. 

in  war.  Primiti  ?&,  first  fruits.  Valv®,  folding  doors. 

Min®,  threats.  Reliqui®,  a  remainder.  Vindici®,  a  claim  of 

Nug®,  trifles.  Salln®,  salt-pits.  liberty,  a  defence. 

Nundin®,  a  market.  Seal®,  a  ladder. 

The  following  are  generally  found  in  the  Plural : 

Brace®,  breeches, 


Alpes,  the  Alpes. 

Arguti®,  quirks,  witticisms. 
Big®,  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
horses. 

Trig®,  —  by  three . 

Quadrig®,  —  by  four. 


Charites,  -um,  the  Graces . 
Faceti®,  pleasant  sayings . 
Inepti®,  silly  stories. 
Pr®stigi®,  enchantments. 
Salebr®,  rugged  places. 


22.  The  following  Neuter  Nouns  want  the  Singulai 

Acta,  public  acts  or  records.  Lautia,  provisions  for  the  entertain 

iEstiva,  summer  quarters.  ment  oj  foreign  ambassadors. 


42 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


§  18 


Arm  a,  arms. 

Bellaria,  -um,  dainties. 
Brevia,  -um,  shallows. 
Cibaria,  victuals. 

Crepundia,  children's  toys. 
Cunabula,  a  cradle,  an  origin. 
Exta,  the  entrails. 

Februa,  purifying  sacrifices. 
Flabra,  blasts  of  wind. 
Fraga,  strawberries. 

Hyberna,  winter  quarters. 
Ilia,  -um,  the  entrails. 

Justa,  funeral  rites. 

Lamenta,  lamentations. 


Magalia,  -um,  cottages. 

Moenia,  -um,  the  walls  of  a  city. 
Orgia,  the  sacred  rites  of  Bacchus 
Parentalia,  -um,  solemnities  at  the 
funeral  of  parents. 

Praecordia,  the  midriff ,  the  bowels. 
Sponsalia,  -um,  espousals . 

Stativa,  a  standing  camp. 

Talaria,  -um,  winged  shoes. 
Tesqua,  rough  places. 

Transtra,  the  seats  where  the  rowers 
sit  in  ships. 

Utensllia,  -um,  utensils. 


Ohs.  8.  Acta  and  transtra  are  also  found  in  the  Singular. 
Some  of  the  ethers,  as,  cestiva ,  brevia,  hyberna,  stativa ,  &c. 
are  properly  Adjectives;  and  agree  with  the  Substantives 
which  are  necessary  to  complete  their  meaning. 


III.  Redundant  Nouns. 

23.  Nouns  are  redundant  in  Termination,  Gender,  or  form 
of  Declension:  as,  arbor ,  or  arbos ,  a  tree ;  vulgus ,  the  rabble, 
Masc.  or  Neut.  menda,  - ce ,  or  mendum ,  -i,  a  fault. 

The  most  numerous  class  of  Redundant  Nouns  is  compos¬ 
ed  of  those  which  express  the  same  meaning  by  different  ter¬ 
minations  :  as, 

JEther,  -eris,  Sc  aethra,  -ae,  the  air.  Amaracus,  8c  -um,  sweet,  mar. 
Alvear,  8c  -e,  Sc  -ium,  a  bee-hive.  joram. 

Ancile,  8c  -ium,  an  oval  shield.  Maceria,  8c  -ies,  iei,  a  wall. 
Angiportus,  -us,  8c  -i,  8c  -um,  a  Materia,  -ae,  8c  -ies,  -iei,  matter. 

narrow  lane.  Menda,  -ae,  8c  -um,  -i,  a  fault. 

Aphractus,  8c  -um,  an  open  ship.  Milliare,  8c  -ium,  a  mile. 

Aplustre,  8c  -um,  the  flag,  colours.  Monltum,  8c  -us, -us,  an  admonu 
Arbor,  8c  -os,  a  tree.  tion. 

Baculus,  8c  -um,  a  staff.  Muria,  8c  -ies,  -iei,  brine  or  pickle 

Balteus,  8c  -um,  a  belt.  Nasus,  8c  -um,  the  nose. 

Batillus,  8c -um,  a  fire-shovel.  Obsidio,  8c  -um,  a  siege. 

Capus,  8c  -o,  a  capon.  Ostrea,  -ae,  8c  -ea,  -orum,  an  oyster 

Cassis,  -xdis,  8c  -Ida,  -Idae,  ahelmet.  Peplus,  8c -um,  a  veil,  a  robe. 
Cepa,  8c  -e,  indec.  an  onion.  Penus,  -us,  Sc  -i ;  8c  -um  ;  8c  -us 
Clypeus,  8c  -um,  a  shield.  -oris,  provisions. 

Colluvies,  8c -io,  filth,  dirt.  Pistrina.  8c  -um,  a  grinding-house 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


43 


§  18 


Compages,  8c  -go,  a  joining. 
Conger,  8c  -grus,  a  large  eel. 
Crocus,  8c  -urn,  saffron. 

Cubitus,  8c  -um,  a  cubit. 
Diluvium,  8c  -es,  a  deluge. 

Elegi,  -orum,  8c  -ia,  an  elegy. 
Elephantus,  8c  Elephas,  -antis,  an 
elephant. 

Esseda,  8c  -um,  a  chariot. 
Eventus,  8c  -a,  -orum,  an  event. 
Gausapa,  8c  -e,  -es  ;  8c  -e,  -is  ;  8c 
-um,  a  rough  cloth. 

Gelu,  8c  -um,  frost. 

Gibbus,  8c  -a;  8c  -er,  -eris,  or  -eri, 
a  bunch ,  a  swelling. 

Glutinum,  8c  -en,  glue. 

Grus,  -uis,  8c  -uis,  -uis,  a  crane. 
Laurus,  -i,  8c  -us,  a  laurel  tree. 


Plebs,  8c  -es,  the  common  people. 
Praetextus,  -us,  8c  -um,  a  pretext. 
Rapum,  8c  -a ,  a  turnip 
Rama,  8c  -men,  the  cud. 

Ruscum,  8c  -us,  butcher's  broom. 
Segmen,  8c  -mentum,  a  paring. 
Sepes,  8c  seps,  a  hedge. 

Sibilus,  8c  -a,  -brum,  a  hissing. 
Sinus,  8c  -um,  a  milk  pail. 
Stramen,  8c  -turn,  straw. 

Sufflmen,  8c  -turn,  a  perfume. 
Tignus,  8c  -um,  a  plank. 

Toral,  Sc  -ale,  a  bed-covering. 
Tonitrus,  -us,  8c  -u,  8c  -uura,  thun¬ 
der. 

Torcular,  8c  -are,  a  wine-press. 
Veternus,  Sc  -um,  a  lethargy. 
Viscum,  8c  -us,  the  mistletoe. 


Obs.  9.  Some  of  the  above  nouns  may  be  used  in  either, 
or  any  of  the  terminations,  and  in  the  Singular  or  Plural,  in¬ 
differently;  some,  as  auxilium ,  laurus ,  -ws,  are  u«ed  only  in 
one  or  two  cases;  or  in  one  number,  as  elegi;  while  others, 
as  prcetextus  (a  pretext)  and  pratextum  (a  border,)  though 
sometimes  synonymous,  are  commonly  employed  in  a  different 
meaning. 


24.  The  following  Nouns  have  a  double  meaning  in  the 
Plural — one  in  addition  to  that  which  generally  belongs  to 
them  in  the  Singular : 

Singular.  Plural. 


Aedes,  a  teihple. 

Auxilium,  assistance. 

Bonum,  any  thing  good. 

Career,  a  prison. 

Castrum,  a  fort. 

Comitium,  a  placein  the  Roman 
forum,  where  the  comitia  were 
held. 

Copia,  plenty. 

Cupedia,  daintiness. 

Facultas.  power ,  ability. 


Aedes,  a  house. 

Auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 

Bona,  goods ,  property. 

Carceres,  the  barriers  of  a  race 
course. 

Castra,  a  camp. 

Comitia,  an  assembly  of  the  people 
for  the  purpose  of  voting. 

Copiae,  troops. 

Cupediae,  or  -a,  dainties. 
Facilitates,  wealth ,  property 


44 


OF  ADJECTIVES. 


§19 


Singular. 

Fascis,  a  bundle  of  twigs,  a  fagot. 

Finis,  the  end  of  any  thing. 
Fortuna,  fortune. 

Gratia,  grace,  favour . 

Hortus,  a  garden. 

Litera,  a  letter  of  the  alphabet. 
Lustrum,  a  period  of  five  years. 
Natalis,  a  birth-day. 

Opera,  labour. 

Opis,  (Gen.)  help. 

Pars,  a  part ,  portion. 

Plaga,  a  space,  a  tract  of  country. 
Principium,  a  beginning,  a  first 
principle ,  or  element. 

Rostrum,  the  beak  of  a  bird,  the 
sharp  part  of  the  prow  of  a  ship 

Sal,  salt. 


Plural. 

Fasces,  a  bundle  of  rods  carried 
before  the  chief  magistrate  of 
Rome. 

Fines,  the  boundaries  of  a  country 

Fortune© ,  an  estate,  possessions. 

Gratiae,  thanks. 

Horti,  pleasure-grounds. 

Liter®,  a  letter,  epistle. 

Lustra,  dens  of  wild  beasts. 

Natales,  birth,  descent. 

Operas,  workmen. 

Opes,  wealth,  power. 

Paries,  a  party , faction. 

Plagae,  nets  used  by  hunters. 

Principia,  a  place  in  the  camp  when 
the  general’s  tent  stood. 

Rostra,  a  pulpit  in  the  Roman  fo¬ 
rum,  from  which  orators  used  to 
address  the  people. 

Sales,  witticisms. 


Note  4. — All  the  Nouns  in  the  preceding  list,  except  castrum  and 
romitium,  are  sometimes  found  in  the  Singular,  in  the  sense  in  which 
they  more  commonly  occur  in  the  Plural. 


§  19.  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  quality  a 
substantive,  or  to  iirait  its  signification;  as  vir 
bonus,  a  good  man ;  decem  naves,  ten  ships. 

1.  The  Accidents  of  the  adjective  are  gender,  number ,  and 
case ,  and  of  most  adjectives  also  comparison. 

2.  Adjectives  indicate  the  gender,  number  and  case  by 
the  termination ;  as,  bon-us,  bon-a,  bon-um.  §  20. 

3.  Participles  have  the  form  and  declension  of  adjectives 
while  in  time  and  signification  they  belong  to  the  verb. 

4.  Some  adjectives  denote  each  gender  by  a  different  ter¬ 
mination  in  the  nominative,  and  consequently  have  three 
terminations.  Some  have  one  form  vmmon  to  the  masculine 


§20 


OP  ADJECTIVES. 


45 


and  feminine,  and  are  adjectives  of  two  terminations,  and 
some  are  adjectives  of  one  termination,  which  is  common  to 
all  genders. 

5.  Adjectives  are  either  of  the  First  and  Second  Declen¬ 
sion,  or  of  the  third  only. 

6.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations,  (except  eleven,)  are 
of  the  first  and  second  declension ;  hut  those  of  one  or  two 
terminations  are  of  the  third. 

Exc.  Eleven  adjectives  in  -er,  of  three  terminations  are 
of  the  third  declension.  See  §  21.  5. 


§  20.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND 

DECLENSION. 

Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declension  have  the 
Masculine  always  in  - us ,  or  -er ;  the  Feminine  always  in  -<z, 
and  the  Neuter  always  in  - um ,  as  Bonus ,  Masc.  bona ,  Fem. 
bonum,  Neuter,  good. 

1.  Bonus,  bona,  bonum,  good . 

Singular.  Plural. 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut 

N.  bon-us, 

-a, 

-um, 

N.  bon-i, 

-se, 

-a, 

G.  bon-i, 

-ae, 

• 

-h 

G.  bon-orum 

,  -arum, 

-drum 

D.  bon-o, 

-ae, 

-o, 

D.  bon-is, 

-is, 

-is, 

Ac.  bon-um, 

-am, 

-um, 

Ac.  bon-os, 

-as, 

-a, 

V.  bon-e, 

-a, 

-um, 

V.  bon-i, 

-ae, 

-a, 

Ab.  bon-o, 

A 

-a, 

-0. 

Ab.  bon-is, 

-is, 

-is. 

In  the  same  manner  decline, 

AltuSj  high.  Durus,  hard.  Lsetus,  joyful . 

Cams,  dear.  Fidus ,  faithful.  Plenus ,full. 

Also  all  participles,  numerals  and  pronouns  in  -us;  as, 
amatus ,  amatfirus ,  amandus , — primus,  secundus,  &c.  mens 
tuus ,  suus; 

NotcA.  Mens  has  mi  in  the  vocative  masculine,  seldom  'xeu*. 


46 


OP  ADJECTIVES. 


§  20 


2.  Tener,  tenera,  tenerum,  tender . 


Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  tener, 

-a, 

-um, 

N.  tener-i, 

-ae, 

-a, 

G.  tener-i, 

-ae, 

-h 

G.  tener-orum, 

-arum, 

-orum 

D.  tener-o, 

-ae, 

D.  tener-is, 

-is, 

-is, 

,4c.  tener-um, 

-am, 

-um, 

Ac.  tener-os, 

-as, 

-a, 

V.  tener, 

-a, 

-um, 

V.  tener-i, 

-ae, 

-a, 

Ab.  tener-o, 

A 

-a, 

-0. 

Ab.  tener-is, 

-is, 

-is. 

In  the 

same  manner  decline, 

Asper,  rough. 

Miser,  wretched.  Exter ,  foreign. 

Liber,  free. 

Prosper,  prosperous.  Satur ,full. 

Also  Compounds  derived  from  gero  and  fero;  as,  laniger ,  bearing 
wool ;  opifer,  bringing  help. 

But  most  adjectives  in  - er  lose  the  e\  as, 


3.  Ater,  atra,  atrtjm,  black. 


Singular 

» 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M.  F. 

N. 

N  ater, 

atra, 

atrum, 

N.  atri,  atrae, 

atra, 

G.  atri, 

atrae, 

atri, 

G.  atrorum,  atrarum, atro  rum, 

D.  atro, 

atrae, 

atro, 

D.  atris,  atris, 

atris 

Ac.  atrum, 

atram, 

atrum, 

Ac.  atros,  atras, 

atra, 

V.  ater, 

atra, 

atrum, 

V.  •  atri,  atrae, 

atra, 

Ab.  atro, 

atra, 

atro. 

Ab.  atris,  atris, 

atris. 

In  like  manner  decline, 

iEger,  sick. 

Macer,  lean.  Sacer,  sacred. 

Creber,  frequent. 

Pulcher,  fair.  Sinister,  left. 

Dexter,  right,  has  - tra ,  -trum;  or  -Mr a,  -t£rum. 


4.  The  following  adjectives  have  the  Genitive  Singular  in 
- ms ,  and  the  Dative  in  -i;  namely, 

Alius, another  of  many .  Solus,  alone. 


Alter,  the  other  of  two 
Alteruter,  the  one  or 
other. 

Neuter,  neither 
Nullus,  none. 

In  the  other  cases,  they  are  like  bonus ,  tener  or  ater ;  as, 


Totus,  vjhole. 
Ullus,  any. 
Unus,  one. 
Uter,  whether. 


Uterlibet,  which  of  the 
two  you  please. 
Uterque,  both. 

Utervis,  which  of  the 
two  you  please. 


OF  ADJECTIVES. 


47 


§  21 


Totus,  tota,  totum,  whole. 
Singular.  Plural. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

JV.  tot-us, 

-a, 

-um, 

N.  tot-i, 

-ae, 

-a, 

G.  tot-ius, 

-ius, 

-ius, 

G.  tot-orum, 

-arum, 

-Drum, 

D.  tot-i, 

• 

-i, 

-ij 

D.  tot-is, 

-is, 

-is. 

Ac.  tot-um, 

-am, 

-um, 

Ac.  tot-os, 

-as, 

-a, 

V.  tot-e, 

-a, 

-um, 

V.  tot-i, 

-ae, 

-a, 

Ab.  tot-o, 

A 

-a, 

-0. 

Ab.  tot-is, 

-is, 

-is. 

Note.2.  Alius  has  aliud  in  the  Neuter  ;  and  in  the  Genitive  alius , 
contracted  for  aliius.  Dative  alii.  The  genitive  in  -ins  in  poetry  has 
the  i  either  long  or  short  j  in  prose  always  long. 


§  21.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

Rule  1. — Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension 
have  -e,  or  -i,  in  the  Ablative  Singular;  but  if  the 
Neuter  be  in  -e,  the  Ablative  has  -i,  only. 

Rule  2. — The  Genitive  Plural  ends  in  - ium ,  and 
the  Neuter  of  the  nominative,  accusative  and  vo¬ 
cative  in  -ia. 

Exc.  Except  comparatives,  which  have  -um, 
and  -a. 

I.  Adjectives  of  one  termination. 

1.  Felix,  happy. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F.  N. 

N.  fel-ix, 

-ix, 

-ix> 

N.  fel-ices, 

-Ices,  -Icia, 

G.  fel-Icis, 

-Icis, 

-icis, 

G.  fel-Icium, 

-Icium,  -Icium. 

D.  fel-Ici, 

-Ici, 

-ici, 

D.  fel-icibus, 

-icibus,  -icibus 

Ac.  fel-Icem, 

-Icem, 

-ix, 

Ac.  fel-ices, 

-Ices,  -Icia, 

V.  fel-ix, 

-ix, 

-ix, 

V.  fel-ices, 

-Ices,  -Icia, 

Ab.  fel-Ice,  or 

-Ici,  &c. 

Ab.  fel-icibus, 

-icibus,  -icibus 

In  like  manner  decline, 
Trux-ucis,  cruel.  Velox-ocis.  swift 


48 


OF  ADJECTIVES. 


5  2) 


2.  Prudens,  'prudent. 


M. 

N.  prudens, 

G.  prudent-is, 

D.  prudent-i, 

Ac.  prudent- em, 

V.  prudens, 

Ab.  prudent-e,  or  -i. 


N.  prudent-es, 

G.  prudent-ium, 
D.  prudent-ibus, 
Ac.  prudent-es, 

V.  prudent-es, 
Ab.  prudent-ibus, 


Singular. 

F. 

prudens, 
prudent-is, 
prudent-i, 
prudent- em, 
prudens, 
prudent-e,  or  -i. 

Plural. 

prudent-es, 

prudent-ium, 

prudent-ibus, 

prudent-es, 

prudent-es, 

prudent-ibus, 


N. 

prudens, 

prudent-is 

prudent-i, 

prudens, 

prudens, 

prudent-e,  or  -i. 


prudent-ia, 

prudent-ium, 

prudent-ibus, 

prudent-ia, 

prudent-ia, 

piudent-ibus. 


In  like  manner  decline, 

Ingens-tis  great,  Recens,  fresh,  Clemens,  gentle.  Also  all  parti ci 
pies  in  -ns;  as,  amans ,  docens,  Ik c. 

Note. — Participles  have  oftener  -e  than  -i  in  the  Ablative  Singular 
and  in  the  Ablative  absolute  have  -e,  only. 


II.  Adjectives  of  two  terminations. 

3.  Mitis,  mite,  meek. 


Singular.  Plural. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N 

N. 

mit-is, 

-is, 

-e, 

N. 

mit-es, 

-es, 

-ia, 

G. 

mit-is, 

-is, 

-is, 

G. 

mit-ium, 

-ium, 

-ium, 

D. 

mit-i, 

• 

~h 

-i, 

D. 

mit-ibus, 

-ibusf 

-ibus, 

Ac. 

mit-em, 

-em, 

-e, 

Ac. 

mit-es, 

-es, 

-ia. 

V. 

mit-is, 

-is, 

-e, 

V. 

mit-es, 

-es, 

-ia, 

Ab. 

mit-i, 

• 

-h 

-i. 

Ab. 

mit-ibus, 

-ibu>. 

-Ibus. 

In  the  same  manner  decline, 

Agilis,  active.  Debilis,  weak.  Talis,  such 

Brevis,  short.  Incolumis  safe.  TTtilis,  useft 


OF  ADJECTIVES. 


49 


4.  Comparative  Degree , — Mitiorjmitius,  more  meek* 


Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 

N.  miti-or,  -or,  -us, 

G.  miti-oris,  -oris,  -oris, 
D  miti-ori,  -ori,  -ori, 

Ac.  miti-drem,  -orem,  -us, 

V.  miti-or,  -or,  -us, 

Ab.  miti-ore,  or  -ori,  &c. 


Plural. 

M.  F.  N. 

N.  miti-ores,  -ores,  ora, 

G.  miti-orum,  -orum,  -Drum, 
D.  miti-oribus,-oribus,-oribus 
Ac.  miti-ores,  -ores,  -ora, 

V.  miti-ores,  -ores,  -ora, 
Ab.  miti-oribus,-oribus,oribu3 


In  like  manner  decline, 

Brevior,  shorter.  Molior,  softer.  Altior,  higher. 

Fortior,  braver.  Durior,  harder.  and  all  other  comparatives. 

Exc.  Plus ,  more,  has  only  the  Neuter  Gender  in  the  Sin¬ 
gular,  and  is  thus  declined. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

\ 

Neut. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  plus, 

N.  plur-es, 

-es, 

-a,  and  -ia, 

G.  pluris, 

G.  plur-ium, 

-ium, 

-lbus, 

-ium, 

D. 

D.  plur-ibus, 

-lbus, 

Ac.  plus, 

V. 

Ac.  plur-es, 

V. 

-es, 

-a,  and  -ia, 

Ab.  plur-e,  or  -i. 

Ab.  plur-ibus, 

-lbus, 

-lbus. 

Note. — Pluria  is  hardly  ever  used  in  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neuter.  Its 
compound,  complures,  has  no  singular. 


III.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations. 

5.  Acer,  or  acris,  acre,  sharp. 


Singular.  Plural. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  a-cer,  v  -cris, 

-cris, 

-ere, 

N.  a-cres, 

-cres, 

-cria, 

G.  a-cris, 

-cris, 

-cris, 

G.  a-crium, 

-crium, 

-crium. 

D.  a-cri, 

-cri, 

-cri, 

D.  a-cribus, 

-cribus, 

-cribus, 

Ac.  a-crem, 

-crem, 

-ere, 

Ac.  a-cres, 

-cres, 

-cria, 

V.  a-cer,  v  -cris, 

-cris, 

-ere, 

V.  a-cres, 

-cres, 

-cria, 

Ab.  a-cri, 

-cri, 

-cri. 

Ab.  a-cribus, 

-cribus, 

-cribus. 

5 


50  OF  ADJECTIVES  §  21 

Besides  acer,  the  following  ten  are  declined  in  this  way. 

Alacer,  cheerful.  Celer,  swift.  Pedester,  on  foot . 

Campester,  belonging  Equester,  belonging  to  Saluber,  wholesome. 

to  the  •plain.  a  horse.  Sylvester,  woody. 

Celeber ,  famous .  Paluster,  marshy.  Volucer,  swift. 

Exceptions  in  the  Ablative  Singular  and  Genitive 

Plural. 

Exc.  1.  The  following  adjectives  have  -e  only  in  the  Ab¬ 
lative  singular,  and  -um  in  the  genitive  plural :  viz. 


Ccelebs,  unmarried.  Pauper,  poor. 

Compos,  master  of.  Juvenis,  young. 

•  Concolor ,  of  the  same  Pubis,  marriageable. 

color.  Senex,  old. 

Hospes,  strange.  Sospes,  safe. 

Impos,  unable.  Impubes,  beardless. 


Superstes,  surviving. 

•  Tricorpor,  three-bo¬ 
died. 

•Tricuspis,  three- 
pointed 

*  Tripes,  three-footed. 
Velus,  old. 


*  The  other  compounds  of  color ,  corpor ,  cuspis  and  pes,  have  like 
wise  -e  and  -um. 

Note. — Ccelebs ,  compos ,  impos  and  superstes,  have  sometimes  -t  in 

the  ablative.  Vetus  has  commonly  revert,  but  always  vetZra  and  vettr- 
um  in  the  plural. 

Exc.  2.  The  following  adjectives  have  -e  or  -i  in  the  abla¬ 
tive  singular,  and  -um  in  the  Genitive  Plural :  viz. 


Ales,  winged. 
Anceps,  double. 
Artifex,  artificial. 
Celer,  swift. 

*  Compar,  equal. 
Consors,  sharing. 


Desrener,  degenerate. 
Dives,  rich, 

Inops,  poor. 

Memor,  mindful. 
Particeps,  sharing. 


Prseceps,  headlong . 
Supplex,  suppliant. 
Uber,  fertile. 

Vigil,  watchful. 
Volucris,  swift. 


*  Dispar,  different,  impar,  unequal,  an dsepar,  separate,  have  also 
-um.  Par  has  -i  only  in  the  ablative,  and  -iurnin  the  Genitive  Plural, 
but  its  compounds  have  in  the  poets  -e  or  -i,  indifferently. 

Note. — Celer,  memor,  and  volucris  have  -i  only  in  the  Abl.  and  vo 
lUcris  and  vigil  have  sometimes  -um  in  the  Genitive  Plural. 

Locuples,  rich,  has  locupletum,  or  locupletvum. 


§22 


OP  ADJECTIVES. 


51 


§  22.  IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

Irregular  adjectives  are  Defective  or  Redundant . 

I.  DEFECTIVE  ADJECTIVES- 

1.  Quot,  how  many?  tot ,  so  many ;  aliquot ,  some;  quot- 
quot ,  and  quotcunque ,  how  many  soever  ;  tot/idem ,  just  so 
many  ;  are  indeclinable,  and  used  only  in  the  Plural  Number. 
Nequam ,  worthless,  is  also  indeclinable,  but  used  in  both 
Numbers. 

2.  Exspes ,  hopeless ;  and  pote ,  able,  are  used  only 

in  the  Nominative.  They  are  of  all  Genders,  and  the  latter 
is  also  found  joined  with  Plural  Nouns. 

Taniundem ,  as  much,  has  tantidem ,  in  the  Genitive,  and 
tantundem ,  m.  and  n.  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Sin¬ 
gular. 

Necesse ,  or  -zzzzz,  necessary  ;  and  volupe ,  pleasant,  are  used 
only  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Singular. 

3.  Mactus ,  -e,  and  PL  -z,  a  common  word  of  encourage¬ 
ment,  brave!  gallant!  is  used  only  in  the  Nominative,  and 
Vocative  Singular,  and  Nominative  Plural. 

Plus ,  more,  in  the  Singular  is  Neuter  only  ;  wants  the  Da¬ 
tive,  and  probably  the  Vocative  ;  has  -e  only  in  the  Ablative, 
and  -a,  seldom  -ia,  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Voca¬ 
tive  Plural  Neuter. 

Primoris ,  Gen.  first,  wants  the  Nominative  and  Voc.  Sin¬ 
gular,  and  the  Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc.  Plural  Neuter ;  likewise 
seminecis ,  half  dead,  which  is  not  used  in  the  Neuter  and 
has  seminecum ,  in  the  Genitive  Plural. 

Pauci ,  few,  and  plerique ,  the  most  part,  are  seldom  used 
in  the  Singular. 

4.  The  following  classes  of  words  want  the  Vocative  :  viz, 
Partitives;  as,  quidam,  alius :  Relatives;  as,  qualis ,  quan - 
lus :  Negatives;  as,  nullus,  neuter :  Interrogatives ;  as,  quo¬ 
tas  ?  u  ter  ? 

Except  aliquis ,  quicunque ,  quilibet ,  and  quisque.  See  §  37. 

5.  The  following  Adjectives  of  one  termination  in  -er,  - es , 
-or,  - os ,  and  -fe: r,  with  the  others  contained  in  the  subjoined 
list,  are  scarcely  used  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  Plural  Neuter. 


52  OF  ADJECTIVES.  §23 

Adjectives  in  ER  :  as,  pauper,  puber ,  celer,  degener ,  uber . 

Adjectives  in  FEX :  as,  artlfex ,  carmfex . 

Adjectives  in  OR:  as,  memor,  concolor,  bicorpor . 

Adjectives  in  ES  :  as,  aZes,  dives,  locuples ,  sospes ,  super- 
stes,  deses ,  reses,  hebes ,  teres ,  proepes. 

Adjectives  in  OS :  as,  compos,  impos ,  &ros. 

Also  pubis,  impubis,  supplex,  comis,  inops ,  vigil,  sons,  in- 
sons,  inter cus ,  redux,  and  perhaps  some  others. 

Cceter ,  or  cceterus,  the  rest,  is  scarcely  used  in  the  Nom. 
Sing.  Masculine. 

Victrix ,  victorious,  and  ultrix,  revengeful,  are  Feminine 
only  in  the  Sing,  but  Fern,  and  Neut.  in  the  Plural;  vict ri¬ 
ces,  victricia. 


REDUNDANT  ADJECTIVES. 

6.  Some  Adjectives  compounded  of  clivus,  frenum,  bacillum,  arma , 
jugum,  limus,  somnus,  and  animus,  have  two  forms  of  Declension  ; 
one  in  -us,  of  the  First  and  Second  Declension  ;  and  another  in  -is,  of 
the  Third  :  as,  acclivus,  -a,  -um,  and  acclivis ,  - e ,  steep  ;  imbecillus , 
and  imbecillis,  weak;  semisomnus ,  and  semisomnis,  half-sleeping; 
exanimus  and  exanimis,  dead.  Also  hildris,  and  hilarus,  merry. 

Obs.  Some  of  these  Compounds  do  not  admit  of  this  variation : 
as,  magnanimus,  Jlexanimus,  effrenus ,  levisomnus,  not  magnanimis, 
§c.  On  the  contrary,  pusillanimis,  injugis,  illimis,  insomnis,  exsom • 
nis,  are  used,  and  not  pusil l animus,  <§r c.  Semianimis,  inermis,  subli • 
mis,  acclivis,  declivis,  proclivis,  are  more  common  than  semianimus . 
SfC.  Inanimis  and  bijugis  are  scarcely  used. 


§  23.  EXERCISES  ON  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Adjectives  and  Substantives  to  be  declined  together • 

Parva  casa,  a  small  cottage.  Alta  arbor,  a  higli  tree. 

Clarus  poeta,  a  famous  poet.  Priscus  mos,  an  ancient  custom, 
Pulchrafilia,  a  beautiful  daughter.  Callida  sestas,  a  warm  summer 
Dulce  pomum,  a  sweet  apple.  Tutus  portus,  a  safe  harbour. 
Docilis  puer,  a  docile  boy.  Nobile  carmen,  a  noble  poem . 

Breve  sevum,  a  short  life.  Antiqua  urbs,  an  ancient  city 

Capax  antrum,  a  capacious  den.  Magna  dos,  a  great  dowry. 


OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


53 


$  24 


Magnum  opus,  a  great  work.  Cava  navis,  a  hollow  ship. 
Serenus  dies,  a  clear  day.  Culpatus  Paris,  wicked  Paris. 

Densa  nubes,  a  thick  cloud.  Miser  Tros,  a  miserable  Trojan . 

Fidus  pastor,  a  faithful  shepherd.  Infelix  Dido,  unhappy  Dido. 


2.  Translate  the  following  words  into  English  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  number  and  case  : 


O peris  magni, 
Claro  poetse, 
Diei  sereno, 
Diei  sereni, 
Densis  nubibus, 
Fidi  pastoris, 
iEvo  brevi, 


Urbem  antlquam, 
Poetis  claris, 

Pueri  dociles, 

Dote  magna, 
Morum  priscorum, 
Carminis  nobilis, 
Callida  restate, 


Urbis  antlquae, 
Paridi  culpato, 
Arbores  altre, 
Trois  miseri, 

Dido  infelici, 
Portibus  tutisj 
Dulcium  pomorum. 


3.  Translate  the  following  phrases  into  Latin ,  observing 
to  put  the  adjective  in  the  same  gender,  number  arid  case  with 
the  substantive.  The  words  will  be  found  in  the  above  list. 


To  a  small  cottage, 
Of  a  capacious  den, 
From  lofty  trees, 
For  unhappy  Dido, 
In  a  hollow  ship, 

A  wretched  Trojan, 
With  thick  clouds, 
From  a  clear  day, 
Of  sweet  apples, 
High  trees, 

With  great  dowries, 


Of  ancient  customs, 
Of  an  ancient  city, 
To  a  great  work, 

O  wicked  Paris, 
Faithful  shepherds, 
In  a  short  life, 

With  a  sweet  apple, 
With  clear  days, 
Noble  poems, 

Of  ancient  cities, 

In  small  cottages, 


In  a  great  work, 
With  wicked  Paris, 
A  harbour  safe, 

In  a  clear  day, 

Of  small  cottages, 
To  a  thick  cloud, 
With  high  trees, 
Beautiful  daughters, 
In  a  warm  summer, 
Of  a  short  life, 

With  docile  boys. 


§  24.  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  those  which  signify  number.  In 
Latin,  they  are  divided  into  four  classes :  viz. 

1.  Cardinal ,  which  express  number  simply,  or  how  many ; 
as,  one ,  tivo ,  three,  four,  &c. 

2.  Ordinal ,  denoting  which  one  of  a  number;  as ,  first 
second ,  third,  fourth,  &c. 

3.  Distributive ,  denoting  how  many  to  each ;  as,  bird  $ 
two  by  two,  or,  two  to  each. 

4.  Multiplicative,  denoting  how  many  fold. 

5* 


54 


OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 


§24 


1.  CARDINAL  NUMBERS. 


The  Cardinal  or 

Principal  numbers, 

are : 

Unus. 

one. 

I. 

Duo, 

two. 

II. 

Tres, 

three. 

III. 

Quatuor, 

four. 

IIII,  or  IV. 

Quinque, 

five. 

V. 

Sex, 

six. 

VI. 

Septem, 

seven. 

VII. 

Octo, 

eight. 

VIII. 

Novem, 

nine. 

VIIII,  or  IX 

Decern, 

ten. 

X. 

Undecim, 

eleven. 

XI. 

Duodecim, 

twelve. 

XII. 

Tredecim, 

thirteen. 

XIII. 

Quatuordecim, 

fourteen. 

XIIII,  or  XIV. 

Quindecim, 

fifteen. 

XV. 

Sedecim,  or  Sexdecim, 

sixteen. 

XVI. 

Septemdecim, 

seventeen. 

XVII. 

Octodecim, 

eighteen. 

XVIII. 

Novemdecim, 

nineteen. 

XVIIII,  or  XIX. 

Yiginti, 

twenty. 

XX. 

Viginti  unus,  or  ) 
Unus  et  viginti,  $ 

twenty-one. 

XXI. 

Viginti  duo,  or  > 

duo  et  viginti,  See.  $ 

twenty-two. 

XXII. 

Triginta, 

thirty. 

XXX. 

Quadraginta, 

forty. 

XXXX,  or  XL. 

Quinquaginta, 

fifty- 

L. 

Sexaginta, 

sixty. 

LX. 

Septuaginta, 

seventy. 

LXX. 

Octoginta, 

eighty. 

LXXX. 

Nonaginta, 

ninety. 

LXXXX,  or  XC 

Centum, 

a  hundred. 

C. 

Cenium  unus,  or  } 

centum  et  unus, See.  $ 

a  hundred  and  one ,  fyc.  Cl. 

Ducenti,  -ae,  -a, 

two  hundred. 

CC. 

Trecenti, 

three  hundred. 

CCC. 

Quadringenti , 

four  hundred. 

CCCC 

Quingenti, 

five  hundred.  . 

10  or  D 

Sexcenti, 

six  hundred. 

IOC,  or  DC. 

Septingenti, 

seven  hundred. 

IOCC,  or  DCC. 

Octingenti, 

eight  hundred. 

IOCCC.  or  DCCC 

OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


55 


§  24 


Nongenti, 

Mille, 

Duo  millia,  or  ) 
bis  mille.  $ 
Quinque  millia,  or  ) 
quinquies  mille,  $ 
Decern  millia,  or  ) 
decies  mille,  $ 

Quinquaginta  millia,  or 
quinqua?ies  mille, 
Centum  millia,  or  ) 
centies  mille,  S 


nine  hundred, 
a  thousand. 

tivo  thousand, 
five  thousand, 
ten  thousand, 
fifty. thousand. 


IOCCCC,  or  DCCOC 
CI.O,  or  M. 

CIOCIO,  or  MM. 
IDO,  or  V. 
CCIOO,  or  X. 
1000,  or  L. 


a  hundred  thousand.  CCCIDOO,  or  C. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


1.  Eighteen  and  nineteen  are  more  properly  expressed  by 
duodeviginli ,  and  undeviginti  ;  from  which  Ordinals,  Dis¬ 
tributives  and  Adverbs  are  likewise  formed.  The  same 
form  is  also  used  in  the  corresponding  numbers  of  each  of 
the  other  decades  ;  as,  duodetriginta ,  twenty-eight ;  unde- 
triginta ,  twenty- nine,  &c. 

2.  The  Cardinal  numbers,  except  unus  and  mille,  want  the 
singular. 

3.  Unus ,  as  a  numeral,  is  not  used  in  the  plural  except 
when  joined  with  a  substantive  that  wants  the  Singular ;  as, 
una  mania,  one  wall ;  or  when  several  particulars  are  con¬ 
sidered  as  one  whole ;  as  una  vestimenta ,  one  suit  of  clothes. 
Unus  is  declined  like  totus ,  §  20.  4. 


Duo,  two ,  and  Tres,  three ,  are  thus  declined. 


Plural. 

Plural. 

M.  F.  N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  duo,  duae,  duo, 

N.  tres, 

tres, 

tria, 

G.  duorum,  duarum,  duorum, 
D.  duobus,  duabus,  duobus, 

G.  trium, 
D.  tribus, 

trium, 

trium, 

tribus, 

tribus, 

Ac .  duos,-o,  duas,  duo, 

Ac.  tres, 

tres, 

tria, 

V.  duo,  duae,  duo, 

Ab.  duobus,  duabus,  duobus. 

V.  tres, 

tres, 

tribus, 

tria, 

Ab.  tribus, 

tribus. 

Amho ,  both,  is  declined  like  duo. 

4.  All  the  Cardinal  numbers  from  quatuor  to  centum ,  in¬ 
clusive,  are  indeclinable  ;  and  from  centum  to  mille ,  they  are 
declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus,  §  20.  1. 

5.  Mille ,  when  placed  before  a  Genitive  Plural  is  a  sub¬ 
stantive  indeclinable  in  the  singular ;  in  the  plural  it  is  de- 


56 


OP  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


§  24 


dined  like  the  plural  of  sedile ,  §  12.  8  j  thus,  m:*dia,  milh - 
■um ,  7/iillibuSj  &c.  When  it  has  a  substantive  in  any  other 
case,  than  the  Genitive  Plural  joined  to  it,  it  is  a  plural  adjec¬ 
tive,  indeclinable;  as  mille  homines ,  a  thousand  men;  b** 
mille  hominibus ,  with  two  thousand  men. 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  NOTATION  BY  LETTERS. 


6.  The  capital  letters  used  by  the  Romans  to  denote  num 
bers,  were  C.  I.  L.  V.  X.  which  are  therefore  called  Nume 
ral  Letters.  I,  denotes  one;  V,  Jive;  X,  ten;  L,  fifty , 
and  C,  a  hundred.  By  the  various  combinations  of  these  let¬ 
ters,  all  numbers  were  expressed  as  follows. 

The  repetition  of  a  letter  repeats  its  value  ;  thus,  II,  sig¬ 
nifies  two  ;  III,  three  ;  XX,  twentij  ;  XXX,  thirty  ;  CC,  two 
hundred  ;  CCC,  three  hundred ,  &c.  V  and  L  are  never  re¬ 
peated. 

When  a  letter  of  less  value  is  placed  before  another  of 
greater  value,  the  value  of  the  less  is  taken  from  the  greater. 
When  placed  after  it,  the  value  of  the  less  is  added  to  the 
greater;  thus. 


IV.  Four. 
.IX.  Nine, 
XL.  Forty. 
XC.  Ninety. 


V.  Five,  VI.  Six, 

X.  Ten,  XI.  Eleven, 

L.  Fifty,  LX.  Sixty, 

C.  A  hundred,  CX.  a  hundred  &  ten 


A  thousand  was  marked  CIO,  which  was  afterwards  ex¬ 
pressed  by  M,  the  initial  of  Mille.  Five  hundred  is  marked 
10,  afterwards  changed  into  D. 

The  annexing  of  0  to  10,  makes  its  value  ten  times  great¬ 
er  ;  thus,  100,  denotes  five  thousand  ;  1000 ,  fifty  thousand. 

In  like  manner  a  C  prefixed,  together  with  another  0  an¬ 
nexed  to  the  numerals  CIO,  always  increases  the  value 
tenfold;  thus,  CIO,  a  thousand;  CCI00,  ten  thousand; 
CCCI000,  a  hundred  thousand.  Any  higher  number  than 
this,  according  to  Pliny,  was  expressed  by  repetition  ;  thus, 
CCCI000,  CCCI000,  two  hundred  thousa?id. 

Thousands  are  sometimes  expressed  by  a  line  drawn  over 

the  numeral  letters ;  thus,  III,  denotes  three  thousand ,  X, 
ten  thousand ,  &c. 


§24 


OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 


67 


II.  ORDINAL  NUMBERS. 

The  Ordinal  Numbers  are  formed  from  the  cardinal;  they 
all  end  in  - us ,  and  are  declined  like  bonus ;  §  20.  1.  as,  pri¬ 
mus,  first,  secundus ,  second,  &c.  See  the  following  table. 


III.  DISTRIBUTIVE  NUMBERS. 

The  Distributive  Numbers  are  all  plural  and  declined  like 
the  plural  of  bonus ,  except  that  they  usually  have  -um  for 
- orum ,  in  the  genitive  plural ;  as,  singuli ,  one  by  one,  or, 
one  to  each ;  bini,  two  by  two,  or,  two  to  each. 

The  following  table  contains  the  Ordinal  and  Distributive 
numbers,  and  the  corresponding  Numeral  Adverbs. 


Ordinal . 

1.  Primus,  first. 

2.  Secundus,  second. 

3.  Ter  this,  third. 

4.  Quartus,  &c. 

5.  Quintus, 

6.  Sextus, 

7.  Septimus, 

8.  Octavus, 

9.  Nonus, 

10.  Declmus, 

11.  Undecimus, 

12.  Duoderimus, 

13.  Tertius  declmus, 

14.  Quartus  declmus, 

15.  Quintus  declmus, 

16.  Sextus  declmus, 

17.  Septimus  declmus, 

18.  Octavus  declmus, 

19  Nonus  declmus, 

20.  Viceslmus,  or  ? 

vigesimus,  $ 

21.  Viceslmus  primus, 

22.  Viceslmus  secundus, 
30.  Tricesslmus,  or  > 

trigesimus,  $ 
40.  Quadrageslmus, 

50.  Quinquagesimus, 


Distributive. 

Singuli,  one  by  one. 
Bini,  two  by  two. 
Terni,  or  trini,  &c. 
Quaterni, 

Quini, 

Seni, 

Septeni, 

Octoni, 

Noveni, 

Deni, 

Undeni, 

Duodeni, 

Terni  deni, 
Quarterni  deni, 
Quini  deni, 

Seni  deni, 

Septeni  deni, 
Octoni  deni, 

Noveni  deni, 

Viceni, 

Viceni  singuli, 
Viceni  bini, 

Triceni,  | 

Quadrageni, 

Quinquageni, 


Numeral  Adverbs . 
Semel,  once. 

Bis,  twice. 

Ter,  thrice. 
Quater,  four  times. 
Quinquies,  &c. 
Sexies . 

Septies. 

Oclies. 

Novies. 

Decies. 

Undecies. 

Duodecies. 

Terdecies. 

Quaterdecies. 

Quindecies. 

Sedecies. 

Decies  et  septies. 
Decies  et  octies. 
Decies  et  nonies. 

Vicies. 

Semel  et  vicies, 

Bis  et  vicies,  &c. 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 

Quinquagies 


68 


OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES 


§  24 


60.  Sexagesimals, 

70.  Septuageslmus, 
80  Octogeslmus, 

90.  Nonageslmus, 
100.  Centeslmus, 

200.  Ducenlesimus, 
300.  Trecenteslmus, 

400.  Quadri  ngente-  ) 
simus,  $ 

500.  Quingenteslmus, 
600.  Sexcenteslmus, 
700.  Septingenteslmus, 
800.  Octingenteslmus, 
900.  Nongentesimus, 

1000.  Milleslmus, 

2000.  Bis  milleslmus, 


Sexageni, 

Septageni, 

Octogeni, 

Nonageni, 

Centeni, 

Duceni, 

Treceni,  or  trecenteni, 
Quadringeni,  or  } 
quadringenteni,  $ 
Quingeni, 

Sexceni,  or  Sexcenteni, 
Septingeni, 

Octingeni, 

Nongeni, 


Sexagies. 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 

Trecenties. 

Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Noningenties. 


Milleni,  or 
singula  millia, 

Bis  milleni,  or 
bina  millia, 


Millies. 

Bis  millies. 


7.  Instead  of  'primus ,  prior  is  used,  if  only  two  are  spoken 
of.  Alter  is  often  used  for  secundus. 

Twenty-first,  thirty-first,  &c.  are  often  expressed  by  unus 
et  vicesxmus ,  unus  et  tricesvmus ,  &c.  and  twenty-second,  &c. 
by  duo ,  or  alter  et  vicesimus ,  &c.,  in  which  duo  is  indecli¬ 
nable.  In  the  other  compound  numbers,  the  larger  precedes 
without  et,  or  the  smaller  with  et;  as,  vicesimus  quartus ,  or, 
quartus  et  vicesimus. 

8.  Distributives  are  sometimes  used  by  the  poets  for  car¬ 
dinal  numbers ;  as,  bina  spicula ,  two  darts.  In  this  sense 
it  is  often  found  in  the  singular ;  as,  centena  arbor e,  for  cen¬ 
tum  arboribus.  Virg. 

9.  The  singular  of  some  distributives  is  sometimes  used  in 
the  sense  of  a  multiplicative ;  as  binus ,  two-fold,  &c. 


IV  MULTIPLICATIVE  NUMBERS. 


Multiplicatives  denote  how  manifold  ;  they  all  end  in  -ear, 
and  are  declined  like/eZear,  §  21.  1.  They  are  as  follows: 


.* 

Simplex,  single. 
Duplex,  double. 
Triplex,  threefold 


Quadruplex,  fourfold. 
Quintuplex,  fivefold. 
Centuplex,  a  hundredfold. 


§25 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


69 


10.  To  these  classes  may  be  added, 

ls£.  Proportionals ,  which  denote  how  many  times  one  thing 
is  greater  than  another ;  as,  duplus,  twice  as  great. 

2d.  Temporals,  which  denote  time ;  as,  bimus,  two  years 
old;  biennis ,  of  two  years’  continuance. 

3d.  Those  which  denote  how  many  parts  a  thing  contains ; 
as,  binarius ,  of  two  parts. 

4th.  Interrogates ,  as  quot,  how  many?  quotas,  of  what 
number?  quoteni,  how  many  each?  quoties ,  how 
many  times?  which  have  for  their  correlatives,  tot, 
totidem ,  &c. 

11.  The  learner  should  carefully  notice  the  distinction  be¬ 
tween  the  cardinal  and  distributive  numerals  in  their  ordina¬ 
ry  use.  Thus,  for  example,  Duo  consules  viginti  naves  ha- 
bebant ,  means,  “  the  two  consuls  together  had  twenty  ships,” 
i.  e.  twenty  in  all,  or  ten  each;  but  Duo  consules  vicenas 
naves  habebant,  means  “the  two  consuls  had  twenty  ships 
each”  ox  forty  in  all. 


§  25.  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  have  three  degrees  of  comparison, 
the  Positive ,  Comparative  and  Superlative. 

The  Positive  expresses  a  quality  simply  ;  as,  bonus,  good. 
The  Comparative  asserts  it  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  in 
one  object  than  in  another.  The  Superlative  asserts  it  in  the 
highest  or  lowest  degree  in  one  object  compared  with  several ; 
as,  Gold  is  heavier  than  silver  ;  it  is  the  most  precious  of  the 
metals.  Hence,  those  adjectives  only  can  be  compared  whose 
signification  admits  the  distinction  of  more  and  less. 

The  Superlative  is  often  used  to  express  a  very  high  or 
low  degree  of  a  quality,  without  implying  comparison ;  as, 
vir  doctissimus ,  “A  very  learned  man;”  hortus  amaznissi- 
mus ,  “A  most  delightful  garden.”  Thus  used,  it  is  called 
the  Superlative  of  eminence ,  and  is  commonly  translated  with 
the  article  a,  or  an; — when  comparison  is  implied,  the  article 
the  must  be  used. 

The  Comparative  is  always  of  the  third  declension,  and 
declined  like  mit.ior ,  §  21.  4.  The  superlative  is  always  of 
the  first  and  second,  and  declined  like  bonus ,  §  20.  1 


60 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


RULES  OF  COMPARISON. 


§  25 


1.  The  Comparative  is  formed  from  any  case 
of  the  positive  ending  in  -i,  by  adding  -or,  for 
the  Masculine  and  Feminine,  and  - us  for  the 
Neuter;  as, 

Positive.  Comparative. 

M.  F.  N. 

Durus,  hard ,  (duri,)  duri-or,  duri-us,  harder . 

Brevis,  short ,  (brevi,)  brevi-or,  brevi-us,  shorter. 

Audax,  bold ,  (audaci,)  audaci-or,  audaci-us,  bolder. 

2.  The  Superlative  is  formed  from  any  case 

of  the  positive  ending  in  -i,  by  changing  -i  into 
- issimus . 


Positive.  Superlative. 

Durus,  hard ,  (duri,)  durissimus-a-um,  hardest. 

Brevis,  short ,  (brevi,)  brevissimus-a-um,  shortest. 

Audax,  bold ,  (audaci,)  audacissimus,  boldest. 

Exc.  If  the  positive  end  in  -er,  the  superlative 
is  formed  by  adding  -rimus ;  as, 

Positive.  Superlative. 

Nom.  Pulcher,  fair ,  pulcher-rimus-a-um,  fairest. 

Nom.  Pauper,  poor ,  pauper-rimus-a-um,  poorest. 

Hence  these  adjectives  will  be  compared  thus: 


Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

Durus, 

durior, 

durisslmus, 

Hard , 

harder, 

hardest. 

Brevis, 

brevior, 

brevissimus, 

Short, 

shorter, 

shortest 

Audax, 

audacior, 

audacissimus, 

Bold, 

bolder, 

boldest 

Pulcher, 

pulchrior, 

pulcherrimus, 

Fair, 

fairer, 

fairest. 

Pauper, 

pauperior, 

pauperrimus, 

Poor, 

poorer, 

poorest 

In  the  same  manner  compare 


Altus,  high. 
Durus,  hard. 
Capax,  capacious. 
Creber,  frequent. 
Firmus,  strong. 
Piger,  slow 


Felix,  happy. 
Lenlus,  slow. 
Gravis,  heavy. 
Integer,  entire. 
Fortis,  brave. 
Velox,  swift 


Levis,  light. 
Sapiens,  wise. 
Vehemens,  vehement 
Prudens,  prudent. 
Liber,  free. 

Doctus.  learned. 


61 


§  26  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES . 


§  26.  IRREGULAR  &  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISONS. 


Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

Bonus, 

rnelior, 

optimus ; 

Good, 

better , 

best. 

Magnus, 

major, 

maximus ; 

Great , 

greater,  greatest 

Malus, 

pejor, 

pessimus ; 

Bad , 

worse , 

worst. 

Multus, 

plus,  n. 

plurimus ; 

Much , 

more, 

most . 

Parvus, 

minor, 

minimus ; 

Little , 

less, 

least. 

Obs.  Plus  has  only  the  neuter  in  the  singular.  In  the  plu¬ 
ral  it  is  regular,  and  is  declined  as,  §  21.  4.  Exc. 


1.  The  following  Adjectives  form  the  Superlative  in  - limus : 


Facllis,  easy. 
Gracilis,  lean. 
Humllis,  low. 
Imbecillis,  weak. 
Simxlis,  like. 


facilior, 

gracilior, 

humilior, 

imbecillior, 

similior, 


facillimus. 

gracilllmus. 

humillimus. 

imbeciillmus. 

simillimus. 


2.  The  following  Adjectives  have  the  Comparative  regular, 
but  the  Superlative  irregular. 


Citer,  near. 

citerior, 

Dexter,  right, 

dexterior, 

Exter,  outward , 

exterior, 

Jnferus,  low , 

inferior, 

Interns,  inward, 

interior. 

Maturus,  ripe, 

maturior, 

Posterus,  behind, 

posterior, 

Sinister,  left. 

sinisterior, 

Superus,  high, 

superior, 

Yetus,  old, 

veterior, 

citlmus. 

dextlmus. 

extremus,  or  extlmus. 
informs,  or  imus. 
intlmus. 

maturrlmus,  or  maturisslmus 
postremus,  or  postumus. 
sinistlmus. 

supremus,  or  summus. 
veterrlmus. 


Note. — Dives,  rich,  has  commonly  ditior  and  ditissimus,  for  its 
Comparative  and  Superlative  ;  contracted  for  divitior  and  divitis' 
simus. 


3.  Compounds  in  dicus,  ficus,  loquus ,  and  volus ,  form  the 
Comparative  in  - entior ,  and  the  Superlative  in  -entissivvus. 


Maledlcus,  railing, 
Beneflcus,  beneficent, 
Miriflcus,  wonderful , 
Magniloquus,  boasting, 
Benevolus,  benevolent, 


maledicentior, 

beneficentior, 

mirificentior, 

magniloquentior, 

benevolentior. 

6 


maledicentisslmns 
beneficentisslmus. 
mirificentissunus. 
magniloquentisslniu  \ 
benevolentisslmus 


62 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  §  26 


Note. — Minficus  has  also  mirif  icisslmus  in  the  Superlative.  The 
Compounds  of  loquus  are  not  found  in  the  Superlative. 


4.  The  following  Adjectives  want  the  Positive: 


Deterior,  worse. 
Ocior,  swifter , 
Prior,  former , 


deterrlmus. 

ocissimus. 

primus. 


Propior,  nearer , 
Ulterior,  farther , 


proxlmus. 

ultfmus. 


5.  The  following  Adjectives  want  the  Comparative  : 


Inclytus,  renowned , 
Invictus,  invincible , 
Merltus,  deserving, 
Novus,  new , 
Nuperus,  late, 


inclytissimus.  Par,  equal ,  parissimus. 
invictisslmus.  Persuasus,  persuaded,  per 
meritisslmus.  suasisslmus. 
novisslmus.  Sacer,  sacr&d,  sacerrimus. 
nuperrimus. 


6.  The  following  Adjectives  want  the  Superlative: 

Adolescens,  young,  adolescentior.  Opimus,  rich,  opimior. 

Diuturnus ,  lasting,  diuturnior.  Pronus,  bending  down,  pronior. 

Ingens,  huge,  ingenlior.  Satur,  full,  satorior. 

Juvenis,  young,  junior.  Senex,  old,  senior. 

Note. — The  Superlative  of  juvSnis ,  or  adolescens,  is  supplied  by 
minimus  natuf  the  youngest ;  senex  takes  maximus  natu,  the  oldest 


7.  Almost  all  Adjectives  in  - ilis ,  (penult  long,)  - dlis ,  and 
- bttis ,  want  the  Superlative  ;  as,  cimlis ,  civilior ,  civil  j  regain 
regalior ,  regal ;  Jlebilis ,  - ior ,  lamentable. 

Note. — Some  Adjectives  of  these  terminations  have  the  superlative 
also  ;  as  cequalis ,f  rugalis ,  hospitalis,  liberdlis,  vocali  — affabilis ,  ama- 
bilis,  habilis,  ignobilis,  mirabilis,  mobilis,  mutabilis,  nobilis ,  stabilis. 

Some  Adjectives  of  other  terminations  also  want  the  Superlative  : 
as,  arcanus ,  -ior,  secret ;  declivis,  -ior,  bending  downwards  ■,  longin - 
quits,  -ior,  far  off ;  propinquus ,  -ior,  near  ;  salutaris,  healthful,  salu * 
tar  ior. 

Anterior,  former,  and  sequior ,  worse,  are  found  only  in  the  compa¬ 
rative. 

Nequam,  worthless  (indeclinable,)  has  nequior,  nequissimus. 

8.  Many  Adjectives,  which  are  capable  of  having  their  sig 
nification  increased,  do  not  admit  of  comparison  :  as, 


Albus,  white  ;  almus,  gracious  j  egenus,  needy  ;  lacer,  torn  ;  memor 
mindful ;  mirus,  wonderful ;  precox,  early  ripe  ;  sospes,  safe,  &c. 


DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


63 


§  27 

Participles  in  -rus  and  - dus ,  and  Adjectives  in  - ivus ,  -Inns,  - drus  and 
•turns:  as,  fugitivus,  fugitive;  inatutinus,  early ;  canorus,  shrill,  le- 
gitimus,  lawful. 

Adjectives  compounded  with  Nouns  and  Verbs  :  as,  versicolor,  of 
various  colors  ;  degtner,  degenerating  ;  pestifer ,  poisonous,  &c. 

Diminutives,  which,  in  themselves,  involve  a  sort  of  comparison  . 
as,  tenellus ,  somewhat  tender  ;  majusculus,  somewhat  big. 

9.  Adjectives,  in  which  a  vowel  precedes  - us ,  except  -quits,  form  the 
Comparative  by  putting  magis  before  the  Positive  ;  and  the  Super 
lative,  by  putting  valde  or  uiaxime  before  it :  as,  arduus,  high  ;  ma¬ 
gis  arduus, higher  ;  valde,  or  maxime  arduus,  highest,  or  very  high. 


§  27.  DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Derivative  Adjectives  are  formed  chiefly  from  nouns,  from 
other  adjectives,  and  from  verbs. 

1.  Those  derived  from  nouns  are  called  Denominatives . 
They  are  such  as  aureus ,  golden;  capitdlis,  capital,  relating 
to  the  life ;  puerilis ,  boyish  ;  animdsus ,  full  of  courage,  &e. 
from  aurum,  caput ,  puer ,  ammus ,  & c. 

2.  Those  derived  from  adjectives  are  also  called  denomina¬ 
tives  ;  they  are  chiefly  diminutives  ;  as,  dulcicUlus. ,  sweetish ; 
duriusculus ,  somewhat  hard,  &c.  from  dulcis,  durus ,  &c. 

3.  Adjectives  derived  from  verbs  are  called  Verbal  adjec¬ 
tives.  They  commonly  end  in  - bundus ,  - idus ,  -bilis,  - ilis , 
- itius ,  and  -ax;  as,  errabundus ,  given  to  wandering;  rapi- 
dus ,  rapid  ;  credibilis ,  credible  ;  Jlexibilis,  easy  to  be  bent ; 
fictitius,  feigned ;  capax ,  capacious,  &c.  from  erros  rapio , 
credo,  jlecto,  Jingo,  capio ,  & c. 

4.  Participles  divested  of  the  idea  of  time  and  expressing 
merely  a  quality,  become  adjectives,  and  are  capable  of  com¬ 
parison  ;  as,  amans ,  fond  of ;  amantior ,  amantissimus ;  doc- 
tus ,  learned ;  doctior ,  doctissimus.  These  are  called  parti¬ 
cipial  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  are  also  derived  from  adverbs  and  prepositions ; 
as,  hodiernus ,  contrarius ,  &c.  from  hodie ,  contra ,  &c. 


64 


OF  PRONOUNS. 


§28 


§  28.  OF  PRONOUNS. 


A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

In  Latin  there  are  eighteen  simple  pronouns,  namely,  Ego , 
tu,  sui;  ille,  ipse ,  iste ,  hie ,  is,  quis ,  qui;  mens ,  ta&s,  swws, 
noster ,  vester;  nostras ,  vestras  and  cujas. 

Of  these,  Ego ,  are  substantive  or  personal  pro¬ 

nouns,  the  rest  are  adjectives. 

SUBSTANTIVE  OR  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

The  Substantive  or  Personal  pronouns  take  the  gender  of 
the  noun  for  which  they  stand,  and  are  thus  declined: 


Ego,  I.  First  Person.  M, 

or  F. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

N.  ego, 

N.  nos, 

We. 

G.  mei, 

of  me, 

G.  nostrum,  or  nostri,*'  of  us. 

D.  mihi, 

to  me, 

D.  nobis, 

to  us. 

Ac.  me, 

me. 

Ac.  nos, 

US. 

V. 

V. 

Ab.  me, 

with  fa.  me. 

Ab.  nobis, 

with ,  fyc.  us. 

Tu,  thou ,  Second  Person,  M,  or  F. 
Singizlar.  Plural. 


N.  tu,  thou  or  you,  N.  vos,  ye ,  or  you , 

G.  tui,  of  thee ,  or  of  you ,  G.  vestrum,  or  vestri,  of  you , 
D.  tibi,  to  thee ,  or  yow,  D.  vobis,  to  you, 

Ac.  te,  thee,  ox  you,  Ac.  vos,  yow, 

F.  tu,  O  or  O  yow,  V.  vos,  O  ye,  or  you, 

Ab.  te,  with,  fyc.  thee ,  or  you.  Ab.  vobis,  with  fa.  you. 


Sui,  of  himself ,  of  herself ,  of  itself.  Third  Person. 
M.  F.  N.  Reflexive. 


N.  - 

G.  sui, 
D.  sibi, 
Ac.  se, 
V.  - 


Singular. 

-  N.  - 

of  himself,  fyc.  G.  sui, 
to  himself ,  fyc.  D.  sibi, 
himself, fa.  Ac.  se, 

-  V.  - 


Plural. 

■  ■■■  -  -■  / 

of  themselves, 
to  themselves , 
themselves. 


Ab.  se,  with  fyc.  himself,  fyc.  Ab.  se,  with ,  fa.  themselves . 


Nostrum, vestrum, G.  subjective;  no stri, vestri,  objective.  §106,  Obs.  1 


OF  PRONOUNS 


65 


§  28 

Obs.  1.  In  all  speech  three  things  are  implied,  the  person 
speaking,  the  person  spoken  to,  and  the  person  or  thing  spo¬ 
ken  of.  These  are  called  in  Grammar  the  first ,  second  and 
third  persons ;  and  the  pronouns  representing  them  are  call¬ 
ed  Personal  Pronouns. 

Obs.  2.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  is  Ego ,  I ;  of  the 
second  Tu,  thou  or  you  ;  of  the  third  Sui ,  of  himself,  of 
herself,  of  itself.  Also  the  adjective  pronouns,  ipse ,  ille , 
isle,  is,  and  hie ,  without  a  substantive,  in  the  gender  of  the 
nouns  represented  by  them,  and  with  the  general  meaning  of 
he,  she,  it,  may  be  called  Substantive  or  Personal  Pronouns. 

Note. — “  Thou”  and  ((  thee”  are  used  as  the  rendering  of  tu  and  its 
cases  in  the  singular,  only  in  solemn  addresses,  or  to  mark  special 
emphasis  or  contempt.  In  ordinary  discourse  it  is  translated  by 
“  you.”  See  Eng.  Gram  §  15.  4. 

Obi  3.  The  third  personal  pronouns,  though  all  translated 
by  one  term  in  English,*  differ  from  each  other  in  meaning 
and  use,  as  follows  : 

1st.  Sui  is  used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  and  in  a  reflexive  sense, 
referring  to  the  main  subject  of  the  sentence,!  and  consequently  in¬ 
dicating  no  change  of  subject;  as,  Cato  se  occidit ,  “  Cato  killed  him¬ 
self  Cato  dixit  se  esse  Caesar e  feliciorem.  “  Cato  said  that  he 
(Cato)  was  more  happy  than  Caesar.” — But  when  the  pronoun  re¬ 
fers  to  another  word,  and  there  is  consequently  a  transition  from  the 
principle  to  a  subordinate  subject,  some  of  the  other  pronouns  ille , 
iste,  is,  must  be  used,  thus,  the  above  sentence  ;  “  Cato  said  that  he 
was  a  happier  man  than  Caesar  if  the  word  “  he”  did  not  refer 
to  Cato,  but  to  some  other  person,  ilium  or  eum ,  and  not  se  would  be 
used  ;  thus,  Cato  dixit  illum,  See. 

Exc.  Sui  and  its  corresponding  possessive  pronoun  suus,  are  some- 

*  The  want  of  different  pronouns  of  the  third  person  in  English, 
is  frequently  the  cause  of  ambiguity,  which  never  can  occur  in  Latin 
or  Greek.  Thus  if  we  say,  ‘‘Lysias  promised  his  father  never  to 
abandon  his  friends  ;”  it  is  impossible  to  tell  from  this  sentence  whose 
friends  are  meant, — whether  those  of  Lysias  or  of  his  father.  If  the 
former,  “  his”  in  Latin  would  be  suos ;  if  the  latter,  “  ejus,”  and  if 
the  latter  in  a  special  manner,  “  ipsius.” 

f  The  main  subject  is  generally  the  nominative  to  the  leading  verb, 
as  in  the  above  examples.  Sometimes,  however,  the  construction 
requires  it  to  be  in  a  different  case  ;  as,  Ah  Antonio  admonitus  sum 
ut  mane  sibi  adessem ;  here  the  leading  subject  is  Antonio  in  the  Abla 
five,  and  to  this,  of  course,  sibi  refers  ;  so  in  the  following  :  “  Pst 
libido  homini  suo  animo  obsequi,”  the  principal  subject  is  “  homini. 

*6 


66 


li*'  PRONOUNS. 


§  28 


t.mes  used  when  the  reference  is  not  to  be  primary,  but  to  a  subordi- 
nate  subject ;  but  this  is  never  done  by  good  writers  when  it  would 
cause  ambiguity.  The  most  common  cases  of  this  usage  are  : — • 
1st.  When  the  primary  subject  is  in  the  first  or  second  person  to 
which  of  course  sui,  being  the  third,  cannot  refer  ;  as,  ilium  occidi 
suo  gladio ,  I  slew  him  with  his  own  sword.  2d.  After  quisque  or 
unusquisque  ;  as,  suum  cuique  tribuunt ,  “  they  give  every  man  his 
own.”  3d.  When  the  word  to  which  suus  refers  stands  immediate¬ 
ly  or  almost  immediately  before  it ;  as,  hunc  cives  sui  ex  urbe  ejecerunt ; 
“  his  fellow  citizens  banished  him  from  the  city,”  4th.  When  the 
noun  with  which  suus  agrees  is  coupled  with  another  by  cum ;  as,  eum 
cum  suis  rebus  dimiserunt ;  “  they  dismissed  him  with  his  effects.” 

2d.  Ipse  is  applicable  to  any  of  the  three  persons,  and, — in  the  no¬ 
minative  case,  is  used  when  either  the  primary  or  the  subordinate 
subject  is  again  introduced  with  emphasis,  in  a  subsequent  or  subor¬ 
dinate  clause,  or  in  the  next  sentence  ;  as,  Lycurgus  nihil  ulla  lege 
in  alios  sanxit,  cujus  non  ipse  primus  in  se  documenta  darei  :  “  Ly¬ 
curgus  bound  nothing  by  any  law  upon  others,  of  which  he  did  not 
first  give  an  instance  in  himself here  ipse  refers  to  Lycurgus ,  the 
primary  subject.  In  the  following  sentence,  ip  si  refers  to  the  subor- 
nate,  and  ipse  to  the  principal  subject ;  Ccesar  ad  prcefectos — mittit 
qui  nunciarent  ne  hostes  prcelio  lacessZrcnt ;  et  si  ipsi  lacessirentur. 
sustinerent  quoad  ipse  accessisset.  Caesar,  IV.  11. 

In  the  oblique  cases,  ipse  hardly  ever  refers  to  the  main  subject, 
(this  being  the  proper  office  of  sui,)  but  to  the  subordinate  when  that 
is  to  be  expressed  with  emphasis,  and  distinguished  from  the  primary 
or  any  other  subject  previously  expressed  ;  as,  Senatus  dixit  non  sua 
negligigentia ,  sed  ipsius  ( Pompeji .)  subito  adventu  factum.  “  The 
senate  said  that  it  happened  not  through  any  negligence  on  their  part 
but  owing  to  his  (Pompey’s)  sudden  arrival.”  Instances  however  oc¬ 
cur  in  which  the  oblique  cases-  refer  to  the  principal  subject,  but 
these  are  rare,  and  such  as  to  create  no  ambiguity. 

3d.  Ille,  iste,  is,  and  hie,  in  all  genders  are  used  as  pronouns,  of  the 
third  person,  and  are  all  rendered  he,  she,  or  it,  as  the  word  which 
they  represent  may  require.  In  the  nominative  they  are  applicable 
equally  to  the  main  or  to  the  subordinate  subject-  But  in  the  ob¬ 
lique  cases,  with  few  exceptions,  they  refer  to  the  subordinate  only. 
Ille  means  he,  referring  to  a  person  at  a  distance  from  the  speaker  ; 
hie  means  he,  referring  to  a  person  near  the  speaker  ;  iste  means  he, 
denoting  a  person  near  to,  or  mentioned  by,  the  person  spoken  to  ;  is 
means  he,  in  a  more  general  way,  and  very  often  designates  a  person 


§  29,  30 


OF  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 


67 


oi  thing  not  previously  mentioned,  but  which  is  described  in  a  suc¬ 
ceeding  clause  with  the  relative.  These  distinctions  may  be  illus 
trated  thus  : 

Ille  venit,  he  (the  person  formerly  spoken  of,)  has  come. 

Iste  venit,  he  (the  person  of  whom  you  spoke,)  has  come. 

Is  venit,  he  has  come. 

Hie  venit ,  he  (the  person  present  or  just  spoken  of,)  has  come. 

In  the  use  of  these  pronouns,  however,  these  distinctions  are  not 
always  strictly  observed  ;  Ille  and  is,  especially  are  often  used  indis¬ 
criminately,  and  in  the  same  sentence  apparently  for  the  sake  of 
Euphony  or  variety  of  expression. 

Iste  is  often  used  as  an  expression  of  worthlessness  or  contempt. 

Obs.  4.  The  personal  pronouns  are  rendered  emphatic  by  an¬ 
nexing  the  definite  ipse,  and  the  syllable  -met  or  -te  separate¬ 
ly  or  variously  combined;  as,  ego  ipse,  ego-met,  tute,nosmet- 
ipsi,  &c.  Se  the  accusative  and  ablative  of  sui  is  often  dou¬ 
bled,  as  sese.  When  the  preposition  cum  is  used  with  the 
ablative  of  the  personal  pronouns,  it  is  commonly  annexed; 
as,  mecum,  tecum ,  secum,  nobiscum ,  &c. 

Obs.  5.  In  the  accusative  plural  with  inter,  or  after  an  active  verb 
with  invieem,  se  is  used  as  a  reciprocal  pronoun;  as,  Fratres  inter  se 
similes ,  u  Brothers  like  each  other.7’  Brutus  et  Jlruns  se  invieem  oc* 
ciderunt,  “  Brutus  and  Aruns  slew  each  other.” 


§  29.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  declined  with  three 
genders,  to  agree  with  their  substantives  in  these 
accidents. 

Adjective  Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  Pos¬ 
sessive ,  Demonstrative ,  Definite ,  Relative ,  Interroga¬ 
tive ,  Indefinite ,  and  P atrial. 

§  30.  I.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  derived  from  the 
Substantive  as  follows : 


68 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

§  31 

Meus, 

-a, 

-um, 

my,  my  own, 

from  ego. 

Thus, 

-a, 

-um, 

thy,  thy  own, 

u 

tu. 

Suus, 

-a, 

-um, 

his,  her ,  its,  his  own, 

§c.  “ 

sui. 

Noster, 

-ra, 

-rum, 

our,  our  own, 

a 

nos. 

Vester, 

-ra, 

-rum, 

your,  your  own, 

u 

VOS 

Obs.  1.  In  signification ,  Possessive  Pronouns  correspond 
to  the  genitive  of  their  primitives,  for  which  they  may  he 
considered  as  a  substitute  ;  thus ,frater  mei ,  “  the  brother  of 
me,”  and  mens  f rater,  “  my  brother,”  mean  the  same  thing, 
and  hence  they  may  often  be  rendered  as  the  genitive ;  as, 
suo  populique  Romani  beneficio,  “  by  the  kindness  of  himself , 
and  of  the  Roman  people.”  Cses. 

Obs.  2.  In  form  they  are  regular  adjectives  of  the  first  and 
second  declension.  Mens,  tuns  and  suns  are  declined  like 
bonus ,  §  20.  1  ;  except  that  mens  has  mi,  seldom  mens,  in  the 
vocative  singular  masculine.  Noster  and  Vester  are  declin¬ 
ed  like  ater,  §  20.  3. 

Obs.  3.  Suus  like  its  primitive  sui,  (§  28.  Exc.)  is  used  in  a  reflex¬ 
ive  sense,  referring  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  in  the  sentence, 
and  must  be  rendered  into  English  in  the  gender  and  number  of  that 
subject  without  regard  to  the  noun  with  which  it  stands  ;  thus,  suam 
- em  familiar  em  per  diderunt ,  u  they  squandered  their  property  here 
suam,  though  singular,  to  agree  with  rem,  must  he  rendered  il  their, ” 
because  it  refers  to  the  plural  subject  of  perdiderunt.  Ilia  suos  fra - 
tres  dilexit,  11  she  loved  her  brothers.” 

When  the  reference  is  not  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  but  to 
some  other  third  person  the  possessive  is  expressed  in  Latin,  not  by 
suns,  but  by  the  genitives  of  ille,  ipse,  iste,  is  and  kic;  thus,  ejus  rem 
familiar em  rapuerunt,  u  they  plundered  his  property.”  Suos  arnicas 
amat ,  means  11  he  loves  his  own  friends  ejus  amicos  amat ,  is  <l  he 
loves  his  friends,”  meaning  (not  his  own,  but)  the  friends  of  some 
other  person  to  whom  ejus  refers. 


§  31.  II.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  such  as  point 
out  with  precision  a  person  or  thing  already  known. 

They  are,  hie,  this  ;  ille,  iste,  is,  that.  They  are  declined 
as  follows : 


§  31  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS.  69 


Hie,  HJEC 

,  HOC, 

this;  Plural,  these. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  hie, 

haec, 

hoc, 

N.  hi, 

hfe, 

harum, 

haec. 

G.  hujus. 

hujus, 

hujus, 

G.  horum, 

horum, 

D.  hi  ic, 

huic, 

huic, 

D.  his, 

his, 

has, 

his, 

Ac.  bi  nc, 

hanc, 

hoc, 

Ac.  hos, 

haec, 

V.  I  e,  ‘ 

haec, 

hoc, 

V.  hi, 

hae, 

haee, 

Ab.  hoc, 

hac, 

hoc. 

Ab.  his, 

his, 

his. 

Ille,  illa 

,  illud,  that;  Plural, those. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  ille, 

illa, 

illius, 

illud, 

N.  illi, 

illae, 

ilia, 

illorum 

G.  illius 

illius, 

*  G.  illorum,  illarum, 

D.  illi, 

illi, 

illi, 

D.  illis, 

illis, 

illis, 

Ac.  ilium 

,  illam, 

illud, 

Ac.  illos, 

illas, 

illa, 

V.  ille, 

ilia, 

illud, 

V.  illi, 

illae, 

illa, 

Ab.  illo, 

ilia, 

illo. 

Ab.  illis, 

illis, 

illis. 

Iste,  that;  is 

declined  like  ille. 

Is,  EA 

,  id,  that;  Plural,  those. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  is, 

ea, 

id, 

N.  ii, 

ese, 

ea, 

G  ejus, 

ejus, 

e  us, 

G.  eorum, 

earum, 

eorum, 

D.  e'i, 

ei, 

ei, 

V.  ns,oreis,iis,0re'is 

,  iis  or  eis 

Ac.  eum, 

earn, 

id, 

Ac.  eos, 

eas, 

ea, 

V.  — 

— 

— 

V.  — 

— 

— 

Ab.  eo, 

ea, 

eo. 

Ab.  iis,or  eis,  iis, or  eis 

,  iis, or  ei's 

From  is  and  the  syllable  -dem  is  formed  idem,  eddem ,  idem , 
“  the  same”  which  is  thus  declined  : 


Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 


N.  Idem, 

ea  lem, 

idem, 

G.  ejusdem, 

ejusdem, 

ejusdem. 

D.  eidem, 

e.deir, 

eidem, 

Ac.  eund<  m, 

eai>d  tir, 

idem, 

V.  idem, 

eadem, 

idem, 

Ab.  eodem, 

eadem, 

eodem. 

*  See  §  20.  Note.  2 


70 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


§  31 


N. 

eadem, 

eorundem, 

eadem, 

eadem, 


'Plural. 

M.  F. 

N.  ndem,  eaedem, 

G.  eorundem,  earundem, 

D .  eisdem,  or  iisdem,  &c. 

Ac.  eosdem,  ’  easdem, 

V.  ildem,  eaedem, 

Ab.  eisdem,  or  iisdem,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of,  ille 
refers  to  the  former,  hie  to  the  latter.  When  three  are  spo¬ 
ken  of,  ille  refers  to  the  first,  hie ,  to  the  last,  and  iste  to  the 
intermediate. 

Obs.  2.  Hie  means  “this,”  referring  to  something  near 
the  speaker  or  just  spoken  of.  Ille  “  that,”  refers  to  some¬ 
thing  at  a  distance  or  before  spoken  of.  Iste  “  that,”  refers 
to  something  near,  or  belonging  to,  or  some  way  connected 
with  the  person  spoken  to.  Is,  “  that,”  is  less  precise  in 
its  reference  than  the  other  demonstratives,  being  not  confin¬ 
ed  to  something  known  or  already  spoken  of,  but  is  often 
used  to  point  out  that  which  is  to  be  farther  described;  as, 
ed  legione  quam  secum  habebat,  “  with  that  legion  which  he 
had  with  him.” 

When  followed  by  ut  or  qui ,  is  has  the  sense  of  talis 
“  such  ;”  as ,Neque  enim  tu  is  es ,  qui  (or  ut )  quid  sis  nescias, 
“neither  art  thou  such  a  one  as  to  be  ignorant  of  what  you 
are.”  With  que  it  gives  emphasis  to  the  clause  to  which  it 
refers;  thus,  idque  “  and  that  too,”  “  especially,”  equivalent 
to  the  Greek  “  xai  <raOVa.” 

Obs.  3.  Hie,  and  some  cases  of  the  other  demonstratives, 
are  rendered  emphatic  by  adding  ce ;  as,  hicce ,  hujusce , 
hunece ,  &c.  When  ne  interrogative  is  also  added,  ce  is  chang¬ 
ed  into  ci;  as  hiccine ,  hoscine,  &c. 

Obs.  4.  From  ille  and  iste  with  hie ,  are  formed  the  com¬ 
pounds  illic  and  isthic  or  istic,  used  in  some  of  the  cases  for 
ille  and  iste,  but  with  greater  emphasis. 

Istic  is  thus  declined, 

Plural . 


Singular. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  istic, 

istaec, 

istoc, 

Ac.  istunc, 

istanc, 

istunc, 

Ab.  istoc, 

istac, 

istoc. 

Illic  is 

declined  in 

N. 

Ac 


, ! 


M.  F. 


N. 

istaec. 


§33 


RELATIVE  PRONOUN. 


71 


§  32.  III.  THE  DEFINITE  PRONOUN. 

The  Definite  Pronoun  ipse  is  used  to  give  a  clo¬ 
ser  or  more  definite  signification  of  a  person  or 
thing;  as,  Ad  ipsam  portam  accessit,  “  he  came  up 
to  the  gate  itself or  “  the  very  gate.”  It  is  thus 
declined : 


Singular. 

Plural. 

M. 

F. 

N.  M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  ipse, 

ipsa, 

ipsum,  N.  ipsi, 

ipsae, 

ipsa, 

G.  ipsius 

,  ipsius, 

ipsius,  G-.  ipsorum,ipsarum,ipsorum, 

D.  ipsi, 

ipsi, 

ipsi,  D.  ipsis, 

ipsis, 

ipsis, 

,4c.  ipsum 

,  ipsam, 

ipsum,  Ac.  ipsos, 

ipsas, 

ipsa, 

V. 

V. 

Ah.  ipso, 

ipsa, 

ipso.  Ah.  ipsis, 

ipsis, 

ipsis. 

§  33.  IV.  RELATIVE  PRONOUN. 

The  Relative  Pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to 
a  noun  or  pronoun  going  before  it,  called  the  an¬ 
tecedent.  It  is  thus  declined. 


Qui,  qua:,  quod,  who,  which,  that . 

Plural. 


Singular. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  qui, 

quae, 

quod, 

G.  cujus, 

cujus, 

cujus, 

D.  cui, 

cui, 

cui, 

quod, 

Ac.  quern, 
V. 

quam, 

Ah.  quo, 

qua, 

quo. 

M.  F.  N. 

N.  qui,  quae,  quae, 

G.  quorum,  quarum,  quorum 
D.  queis,or  quibus,  &c. 

Ac.  quos,  quas,  quse, 

V. - - - - 

Ah.  queis,  or  quibus,  &c. 


For  the  construction  of  the  relative,  see  §  99. 

Ohs.  1.  Qui  is  sometimes  used  for  the  ablative  singular  in 


72 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 


§  34 

all  genders,  seldom  for  the  plural.  To  all  forms  of  the  Ab¬ 
lative,  cum  is  frequently  annexed;  as,  quocum,  quibuscum ,  &c. 

Ohs .  2.  Quicu?ique,  or  quicuniquc  and  quivis,  also  used  as 
relatives  (§  99,  Obs.  7.)  are  declined  like  qui. 


§  34.  V.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 


)>> 


The  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  used  in  asking 
a  question;  as,  quis  fecit?  “  who  did  it?3 

The  interrogatives  are, 

«u!s?  A  who >  what?  Ecquis ? 

Quisnam  ?  ^  Ecquisnam  1  ^  is  any  one  1 

&ikm,  CuPfJ„se? 

Cujas?  of  what  country? 

The  simple  interrogative  quis ,  is  thus  declined. 


Quis,  qua:,  quod,  or  quid  ?  Who  ?  which  ?  ivhat  ? 

Singular.  Plural. 

M.  F.  N.  M.  F.  N. 

N.  quis,  quae,  quod,  or  quid, N.  qui,  quae,  quae, 

G.  cujus,cujus,  cujus,  G.  quorum,  quarum,  quorum, 

D.  cui,  cui,  cui,  D.  queis,  or  quibus,  &c. 

Ac.  quem, quam,  quod,  or  quid,  Ac.  quos,  quas,  quae, 

V. - -  -  V.  - - - -  - 

Ab.  quo,  qua,  quo.  Ab.  queis,  or  quibus,  &c. 

For  the  inflection  of  the  compound  interrogatives,  see  §  37.  2. 

Obs.  1.  All  interrogative  pronouns  used  in  a  dependent 
clause  and  without  a  question  are  indefinites ,  §  35.  as, 
nescio  quis  sit ,  £‘  I  know  not  who  he  is.”  In  this  sense,  qui 
is  often  used  for  quis;  as,  qui  sit  aperit,  a  he  shews  whe 
he  is.”  So  also  such  adjectives  as  quantus ,  qudlis ,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  Quod  in  the  neuter  gender,  as  an  adjective,  com¬ 
monly  agrees  with  its  noun  ;  as,  quod  beneficium  est  hi  hoc  ? 
“  what  kindness  is  in  this  ?”  Quid ,  as  a  substantive,  common¬ 
ly  governs  its  noun  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  quid  beneficii  est  in 
hoc  ? 


OF  PRONOUNS. 


73 


§  35,  36,  37. 

Obs.  3.  Cujus,  -0,  -um,  “  whose,”  used  instead  of  the  ge¬ 
nitive  of  quis  is  defective.  The  parts  in  use  are  as  follows : 
Singular.  Plural. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

2V.  cujus, 

cuja, 

cujum, 

N.  cuji, 

cujae. 

Ac.  cujum, 

cujam, 

Ac. - 

cujas 

Ab. 

cuja, 

Obs.  4.  Cujas , 

“  of  what  country,” 

is  declined 

like 

adjective  of  one  termination,  §  21.  I.  Nom.  cujas ,  Gen.  cu 
jatis ,  &c. 


§  35.  VI.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

The  Indefinite  Pronouns  are  such  as  denote 
persons  or  things  indefinitely,  without  indicating 
a  particular  individual.  Besides  the  interrogatives 
used  indefinitely,  they  are, 


Aliquis,  some  one. 

Siquis,  if  any  one. 

Nequis,  lest  any ,  no  one. 

Quisque,  each  one,  every  one. 
Quisquam,  any  one. 


Quispiam,  some  one. 
Unusquisque,  each  one. 
Quidam,  a  certain  one. 
Quilibet,  )  , 

Quivis,  l  any  one  you  Ple<ut' 


For  the  inflection  of  these,  see  §  37.  1.  2.  3. 


§  36.  VII.  PATRIAL  PRONOUNS. 

The  Patrial  Pronouns  are  those  which  have  reference  to 
one’s  country.  They  are  nostras ,  “  of  our  country;  ”  ves - 
tras,  “  of  your  country.”  They  are  both  adjectives  of  one 
termination.  Nom.  nostras ,  Gen.  nostratis ,  &c.  §  21. 1. 


§  37.  COMPOUND  PRONOUNS. 

The  compound  pronouns  all  belong  to  some  of  the  classes 
above  enumerated. 


7 


74 


OF  PRONOUNS. 


§37 


In  the  compounds  of  qui  and  quis,  qui  is  always  the  first 
part ;  quis  is  sometimes  the  first  part  and  sometimes  the  last 
part  of  the  word  compounded. 

1.  The  compounds  of  qui  are  quicunque ,  “whosoever;” 
quidam ,  “some}”  quilibet,  quids,  “anyone;”  “whom  you 
please.”  They  are  declined  by  adding  the  termination  to 
the  different  cases  and  numbers  of  qui;  thus, 


Quicunque,  ivhosoever ,  whatsoever . 
Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 


N.  quicunque,  quaecunque, 

G .  cujuscunque,  cujuscunque, 

Plural. 


quodcunque, 
cujuscunque,  &c. 


N»  quicunque,  quaecunque, 

G.  quorumcunque,  quarumcunque, 


quaecunque, 
quorumcunque.  &c. 


Quidam, 

Quilibet, 

Quivis, 


quaedam,  quoddam,  or  quiddam. 

quaelibet,  quodlibet,  or  quidlibet. 

quaevis,  quodvis,  or  quidvis. 


Note. — Before  -dam,  m  is  changed  into  n  ;  as,  quendam,  quorun- 
dam,  &c. 

2.  The  compounds  of  quis ,  when  quis  is  put  first,  are  quis - 
nam ,  “who?”  quispiam,  quisquam ,  “any  one;”  quisque , 
“  every  one  ;”  and  quisquis ,  “  whosoever.” 


M. 

N.  quisnam, 
G.  cujusnam, 
D.  cuinam, 
^4c.  quemnam, 

V.  - 

Ab.  quonam, 


Quisnam,  who ,  which ,  what  ? 


Singular. 


F. 

quaenam, 

cujusnam, 

cuinam, 

quamnam, 


N. 

quodnam,  or  quidnam, 

cujusnam, 

cuinam, 

quodnam,  or  quidnam, 


quanam,  quonam. 


OF  PRONOUNS. 


76 


N.  quinam, 

G.  quorumnam, 
D.  quibusnam, 
Ac.  quosnam, 

V.  - 

Ab.  quibusnam, 


Plural . 
qugenam, 
quarumnam, 
quibusnam, 
quasnam, 

quibusnam, 
So  decline. 


quasnam, 

quorumnam, 

quibusnam, 

quaenam, 

quibusnam. 


Quispiam, 

Quisquam, 

Quisque, 

Quisquis, 


quaepiam, 

quaequam, 

quaeque, 


quodpiam,  or  quidpiam. 
quodquam,  or  quidquam. 
quodque,  or  quidque. 
quidquid,  or  quicquid. 


Ohs.  1.  Quisquam  has  quenquam  in  the  accusative,  with¬ 
out  the  feminine.  The  plural  is  scarcely  used ;  quicque  is 
also  used  for  quidque .  Quisquis  has  no  feminine  termination 
except  in  the  Ablative,  and  the  Neuter  only  in  the  Nomina¬ 
tive  and  Accusative.  The  following  are  the  parts  in  use, 

Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 


N.  quisquis, 

quidquid,  or  quicquid, 

Ac.  quemquem, 

quidquid,  or  quicquid , 

Ab.  quoquo. 

quaqua, 

quoquo. 

The  Plural  has  Nom.  Masc.  quiqui ,  and  Dat.  quibusqui - 
bus.  Quisquis  is  sometimes  used  for  the  feminine. 

3.  The  compounds  of  quis  when  quis  is  put  last,  have  qua 
in  the  Nom.  Sing.  Fern,  and  in  the  Nom.  and  Accusative  Plu¬ 
ral  Neuter.  These  are, 


Aliquis,  some.  Numquis,  whether  any? 

Ecquis,  whether  any  ?  Siquis,  if  any. 

Nequis,  lest  any. 

The  last  three  are  often  written  separately ;  as,  ne  quis , 
num  quis ,  si  quis.  These  pronouns  are  thus  declined  : 


Singular. 


M. 

F. 

N. 

aliquis, 

aliqua, 

G. 

alicujus, 

alicujus, 

D 

alicui, 

alicui, 

Ac. 

aliquem, 

aliquam, 

V. 

aliquis, 

aliqua, 

Ab. 

.  aliquo. 

aliqua, 

N. 

aliquod,  or  aliquid, 

alicujus, 

alicui, 

aliquod,  or  aliquid, 
aliquod,  or  aliquid, 
aliquo. 


76 


M. 

N.  aliqui, 

G.  aliquorum, 
D.  aliquibus, 
Ac.  aliquos, 

V.  aliqui, 

Ah .  aliquibus, 


OF  THE  VEKB. 

Plural . 

F. 

aliquas, 

aliquarum, 

aliquibus, 

aliquas, 

aliquae, 

aliquibus, 


§  3S 


N. 

aliqua, 

aliquorum, 

aliquibus, 

aliqua, 

aliqua, 

aliquibus. 


Note.  Ecquis  and  siquis  have  sometimes  quce  in  the  nominative 
singular  feminine. 

Obs.  2.  Some  of  these  are  twice  compounded ;  as,  ecquis - 
na?n,  ecqucenam ,  ecquodnam ,  or  ecquidnam,  “who?”  unus- 
quisque ,  unaquceque,  unumquodque,  or  unumquidque ,  “  every 
one;”  Gen.  uniuscujusque,  &c.  The  former  is  scarcely  de¬ 
clined  beyond  the  Nom.  Sing,  and  the  latter  wants  the  Plural. 

Obs.  3.  All  these  compounds  want  the  vocative,  except 
quisque ,  aliquis ,  quilibet  and  quicunque .  They  have  seldom 
if  ever  qucis,  but  quibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 


$  38.  OF  THE  VERB. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  act , 
being,  or  state  of  its  subject. 

Obs.  1.  The  use  of  the  verb  in  simple  propositions  is  to 
affirm.  That  of  which  it  affirms  is  called  its  subject ,  and,  if 
a  noun  or  pronoun,  is  usually  in  the  nominative  case.  But 
when  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive,  its  subject  is  put  in  the 
accusative. 

1.  Verbs  are  of  two  kinds,  Transitive  and  In¬ 
transitive  ;  (Also  called  Active  and  Neuter.*) 

*  These  two  classes  comprehend  all  the  verbs  in  any  language.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  this  division,  Transitive  verbs  include  those  only  which  denote 
transitive  action  ;  i.  e.,  action  passing  over  from,  or  done  by,  one  person 
or  thing  to  another  ;  and  Intransitive  verbs,  those  which  have  nothing 
transitive  in  their  meaning,  but  which  represent  their  subject  in  a  certain 
state  or  condition,  and  nothing  more.  For  this  purpose  not  only  are  the 
terms  Transitive  and  Intransitive  more  expressive  and  appropriate  than 
Active  and  Neuter ,  but  their  use  relieves  the  term  “  Active1'  to  be  em¬ 
ployed  solely  as  the  name  of  the  form  called  the  Active  Voice  ;  and  the  term 
4  Neuter to  be  appropriated  to  the  gender  of  nouns.  E.  G.  App.  III.  5. 


§38 


OF  THE  VERB. 


77 


2.  A  Transitive  (or  Active)  verb  expresses  an 
act  done  by  one  person  or  thing  to  another.  It 
has  two  forms,  called  the  Active  and  Passive  voice. 

§41. 

3.  An  Intransitive  (or  Neuter)  verb  expresses 
being ,  or  a  state  of  being ,  or  action  confined  to  the 
actor.  It  is  commonly  without  the  passive  form. 

Obs.  2.  The  verbs  that  express  foeVg  simply,  in  Latin,  are 
sum,Jio ,  existo ,  signifying  in  general  “  to  be,”  or  “  exist.” 
The  state  of  being  expressed  by  intransitive  verbs  may  be 
a  state  of  rest ;  as  dormio ,  I  sleep  ;  or  of  motion,  as  cado ,  I 
fall;  or  of  action,  as  curro ,  I  run. 

Obs.  3.  The  action  expressed  by  an  intransitive  verb  does 
not,  like  the  action  expressed  by  a  transitive  verb,  pass  over 
from  the  agent  or  actor  to  an  object.  It  has  no  immediate  rela¬ 
tion  to  anything  beyond  its  subject,  which  it  represents  in  a 
certain  state  or  condition,  and  nothing  more;  and  hence  they 
may  always  be  distinguished  thus  :  A  transitive  verb  always 
requires  an  object  to  complete  the  sense  ;  as,  amo  te,  I  love 
thee ;  the  intransitive  verb  does  not,  but  the  sense  is  com¬ 
plete  without  such  an  object;  as.  sedeo ,  I  sit  ;  curro,  I  run. 

Obs.  4.  Many  verbs  considered  intransitive  in  Latin  are 
translated  by  verbs  considered  transitive  in  English ;  as 
placeo,  I  please;  obedio ,  I  obey;  credo ,  I  believe,  & c. 

Obs .  5.  Many  verbs  are  used  sometimes  in  a  transitive, 
and  sometimes  in  an  intransitive  sense.  Such  are  fugio,  in- 
clino ,  timeo ,  &r, ;  as,  fuge  dextrum  littus  (tr.)  “  avoid  the  right 
hand  shore  ;”  tempusfu  git, (intr.)  “  time  flies  ;”  timeo  Danaos , 
(tr.)  “  I  dread  the  Greeks,”  timeo  (intr.)  “  I  am  afraid.” 

Obs.  6.  Verbs  usually  intransitive  assume  a  transitive 
sense  when  a  word  of  similar  signification  with  the  verb 
itself  is  introduced  as  its  object;  as,  vivere  vitam,  “to 
live  a  life  ;”  jurare  jusjurandum ,  “  to  swear  an  oath.” 

Obs.  7.  When  we  wish  to  direct  the  attention,  not  so  much  to 
any  particular  act  of  the  subject  of  discourse,  as  to  the  employ¬ 
ment  or  state  of  that  subject,  the  object  of  the  act — not  being 
important — is  omitted,  and  the  transitive  verb  assumes  the 
character  of  an  intransitive;  thus,  in  the  sentence,  puer  legit 

1* 


78 


OF  THE  VERB. 


§  39 

♦‘tne  boy  reads  nothing  more  is  indicated  than  the  pre¬ 
sent  state  or  employment  of  puer ,  “  the  boy,”  and  the  verb  has 
obviously  an  intransitive  sense  :  Still,  an  object  is  necessarily 
implied,  as  he  who  reads  must  read  something.  But  when 
we  say  puer  legit  Homerum,  “  the  boy  reads  Homer,”  the 
attention  is  directed  to  a  particular  act,  terminating  on  a 
certain  object,  “  Homerum ,”  and  the  verb  has  its  proper 
transitive  sense. 


$  39.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  VERBS. 

Though  the  Division  of  Verbs  into  Transitive  and  Intran¬ 
sitive,  comprehends  all  the  verbs  in  any  language,  yet  from 
something  peculiar  in  their  form  or  signification,  they  are 
characterized  by  different  names,  expressive  of  this  peculi¬ 
arity.  The  most  common  of  these  are  the  following,  viz: 
Regular,  Irregular ,  Deponent,  Common,  Defective,  lm.persoru 
al.  Redundant ,  Frequentative ,  Inceptive,  and  Desiderati ve. 

1.  Regular  Verbs  are  those  in  which  the  se¬ 
condary  parts  are  formed  from  the  primary,  ac¬ 
cording  to  certain  rules.  §  51. 

Note. — Under  these  are  included  Transitive,  Intransitive,  Deponent, 
and  Common  verbs  belonging  to  the  four  conjugations. 

2.  Irregular  Verbs  are  those  in  which  some 
of  the  secondary  parts  are  not  formed  from  the  pri¬ 
mary,  according  to  rule.  §  83. 

3.  Deponent  Verbs  under  a  passive  form  have 
an  active  signification.  §  72. 

4.  Common  Verbs  under  a  passive  form  have 
an  active  or  passive  signification.  §  72. 

5.  Defective  Verbs  want  some  of  their  parts. 
§  84. 

6.  Impersonal  Verbs  are  used  only  in  the  third 
person  singular.  §  85. 


THE  VERB. - INFLECTION* 


79 


$  40 


7.  Uedundant  Verbs  have  more  than  one  form 
of  the  same  part.  §  87. 

8.  Frequentative  Verbs  express  repeated  ac¬ 
tion.  §  88.  1. 

9.  Inceptive  Verbs  mark  the  beginning  or  con¬ 
tinued  increase  of  an  action.  §  88.  2. 

10.  Desiderative  Verbs  denote  desire  or  in¬ 
tention  of  doing.  §  88.  3.  The  three  last  are  al¬ 
ways  derivatives.  §  88. 


§  40.  INFLECTION  OF  VERBS. 

To  the  inflection  of  Verbs  belong  Voices , 
Moods ,  Tenses ,  Numbers ,  and  Persons. 

1.  The  Voices  in  Latin  are  two,  Active  and 
Passive. 

2.  The  Moods  are  four,  the  Indicative,  Subjunc¬ 
tive,  Imperative  and  Infinitive. 

3.  The  Tenses  are  six,  the  Present ,  Imperfect, 
Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future  and  Future-Perfect. 

4.  The  Numbers  are  two,  Singular  and  Plural . 

5.  The  Persons  are  three,  First,  Second  and 
Thirds 

6.  Besides  these,  to  the  Verb  belong  Partici¬ 
ples,  Gerunds  and  Supines. 

7.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  its  different  moods,  tenses,  &c.  according 
to  a  certain  order.  Of  these,  in  Latin,  there  are 
four,  called  the  First,  Second,  Third  and  Fourth 
Conjugations.  §  51. 


80 


I’HE  VERB. - VOICE. 


§  41 

Obs.  A  few  verbs  in  Latin  are  of  more  than  one  conjuga¬ 
tion,  and  a  few  have  some  of  their  parts  belonging  to  ono 
conjugation,  and  others  to  another. 


§  41.  OF  VOICE. 

Voice  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb  which 
shews  the  relation  of  the  subject  or  thing  spoken 
of,  to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

The  transitive  verb, in  Latin, has  two  voices,  call¬ 
ed  the  Active  and  Passive. 

1.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  of 
the  verb  as  acting  on  some  object;  as,  amo  te,  “I 
love  thee.” 

2.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  of 
the  verb  as  acted  upon;  as,  amatur ,  “he  is  lov¬ 
ed.” 

Obs.  1.  In  both  voices  the  act  expressed  by  the  verb  is  the 
same,  but  differently  related  to  the  subject  of  the  verb.  In 
the  active  voice  the  subject  is  the  actor ;  in  the  passive ,  it  is 
acted  upon,  as  in  the  above  examples.  Hence  the  same  idea 
nay  be  expressed  with  equal  propriety  in  either  voice,  by 
s  mply  changing  the  object  of  the  active  voice  into  the  subject 
of  the  passive,  thus,  by  the  active  voice,  Ccesar  vicit  Gal - 
h  mi ,  “  Ceesar  conquered  Gaul;”  by  the  passive,  Gallia  victa 
es  a  Ccesare ,  “  Gaul  was  conquered  by  Cassar. 

This  property  of  the  transitive  verb  enables  the  speaker  or 
writer  not  only  to  vary  his  form  of  expression  at  pleasure, 
but  also  by  means  of  the  passive  form,  to  direct  the  attention 
*o  the  act  and  the  object  acted  upon  when  the  actor  either  is 
unknown,  or,  it  may  be,  unimportant  or  improper  to  be  men¬ 
tioned  :  Thus,  “  America  was  discovered  and  inhabited  be¬ 
fore  the  days  of  Columbus.”  So  also  the  attention  may  be 
directed  by  means  of  the  active  voice  to  the  act  and  the  actor, 
without  regard  to  the  object.  See  §  38.  Obs.  7. 

Obs.  2.  Intransitive  Verbs  from  their  nature  do  not  admit 


§42 


THE  VERB. - MOODS. 


81 


a  distinction  of  voice.  They  are  generally  in  the  form  of  the 
active  voice,  but  are  frequently  used  in  the  third  person 
singular,  passive  form,  as  impersonal  verbs.  §  85.  8.  Depo¬ 
nent  intransitives,  however,  have  the  form  of  the  passive. 

Obs.  3.  The  passive  voice  in  Latin  is  often  used  in  a  sense 
similar  to  the  middle  voice  in  Greek,  to  express  actively 
what  its  subject  does  to,  or  for  itself;  as,  donee  pauci,  qut 
preelio  super fuer ant,  ^aZwdzfozsabderentur,  “tiflthe.few  who 
had  survived  the  battle  concealed  themselves  in  the  marshes.” 
Tac.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  same  kind.  Co - 
lumba — fertur  in  arva  volans .  Virg. — Nunc  spicula  ver- 
tunt  inf  e?isi;  facta  pariter  nunc  pace  feruntur.  Id — E  scopu - 
lo  multd  vix  arte  revolsus — ratem  Sergestus  aglbat .  Id — 
Quis  ignorat ,  ii,  qui  mathematici  vocantur ,  in  quanta  obscu- 
rztate  rerum — versentur.  Cic. — Cum  igitur  vehementius 
inveheretur  in  causam  principum  consul  Philippus.  Id. — 
Cum  orrnies  in  omni  genere  scelerum  volutentur.  Id. 

Circumdat  nequidquam  humeris,  et  inutile  ferrum, 
Cingitur ,  ac  densos  fertur  moriturus  in  hostes.  Virg. 

In  all  such  constructions  the  words  “  c  se”  may  be  under¬ 
stood  after  the  verb. 


§  42.  OF  MOODS. 

Mood  is  the  mode  or  manner  of  expressing  the 
signification  of  the  verb. 

The  moods  in  Latin  are  four;  namely,  the  In¬ 
dicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative  and  Infinitive. 

I.  The  Indicative  Mood  expresses  what  is  act¬ 
ual  and  certain,  in  an  absolute  and  independent 
manner;  a s,  amo,  “  I  love.” 

Obs.  1.  That  which  is  actual  and  certain  is  sometimes  ex¬ 
pressed  by  the  subjunctive  mood,  but  in  that  case  the  clause 
expressing  it  is  dependent ;  as,  nescit  quis  sim,  “  he  knows 
not  who  I  amP 

II.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  never  used  to 


82  THE  VERB. — MOODS.  §  42 

express  an  absolute  and  independent  assertion, 
but  it  is  used — 

1st.  To  express  a  thing  in  a  subordinate  clause, 
dependent  upon  a  preceding  verb  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood,  and  connected  with  it  by  an  adverb,  con¬ 
junction,  or  indefinite  term ;  as, 

Nescit  quis  sim,  “  he  knows  not  who  I  am.”  Si  redeat  videbimus , 
“  if  he  returnvce  shall  see  him,”  &c.  Accidit  utterga  verterent,  “  it 
happened  that  they  turned  their  backs.” 

Obs.  2.  Thus  used  the  Subjunctive  is  rendered  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  indicative  or  subjunctive ;  as,  Indie,  lego ,  “  I  read,” 
Subj.  quod  leg  am ,  “  because  I  read  ;”  Indie,  omneseum  ama - 
verunt ,  all  men  loved  him ;  Subj.  adeo  benevolus  erat  ut  om~ 
nes  eum  amarent,  “  he  was  so  kind  that  all  men  loved  him j” 
See  Eng.  Gr.  §  22.  Obs  2.  Thus  used  it  comes  under  $  44. 

2d.  It  is  used  potentially  to  express  a  thing  not 
as  actual  and  certain,  but  contingent  and  hypotheti¬ 
cal,  that  is,  not  as  what  does ,  or  did ,  or  certain¬ 
ly  will  take  place,  but  as  what  may ,  can ,  might ,  oi 
should  take  place  in  certain  circumstances. 

In  other  words,  it  does  not  assert  the  positive  action  or 
state  of  its  subject,  but  only  the  liberty,  power,  will ,  or  duty 
of  the  subject  with  respect  to  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb  ;  as,  legerem  si  necesse  esset ,  “  I  would  read  if  it  were 
necessary.” 

Obs.  3.  In  the  first  of  these  senses,  this  mood  is  strictly 
subjunctive  and  corresponds  to  the  subjunctive  mood  in  Eng¬ 
lish,  though  commonly  translated  by  the  indicative.  In  the 
second  sense  it  is  evidently  potential,  and  is  translated  by  the 
English  potential  mood,  implying,  in  the  present,  the  sense  of 
may,  can,  shall ,  will;  and  in  the  preterite  tenses,  the  sense  ol 
might ,  could ,  should ,  would ;  as,  amem,  “  I  may  or  can 
love,”  quisquam  Junonis  numen  adoret,  “  will  any  one 
adore”  &c.  Ccesar  nascetur ,  famam  qui  terminet  astris , 
“  Ccesar — who  shall  or  will  bound”  &  c. 

Obs.  4.  This  mood  is  often  used  in  an  optative  and  also  in 
an  imperative  sense  ;  as,  utinam  saperes ,  “  O  that  thou  wert 
wise  ;”  quod  bene  vertat ,  “  may  it  turn  out  well ;”  sic  eat , 
‘thus  let  her  go  j”  facias ,  “  do  it.”  See  Obs.  5. 


§42 


THE  VERB. —  MOODS. 


83 


Obs.  5.  When  this  mood  is  used  in  a  potential,  optative  or 
imperative  sense,  still  it  ought  to  be  regarded  as  strictly  sub¬ 
junctive,  having  the  primary  or  leading  clause  evidently  un¬ 
derstood,  on  which  the  meaning  of  the  mood  in  each  case  de¬ 
pends.  Thus,  “I  may  write,”  licet  mihi  ut ,  or  est  ut  scri- 
bam ,  “  I  shall,  or  will  write fuiurum  est ,  or  erit  ut  scri- 
bam,  “  I  should  write  j”  oportet ,  cequum  est  ut,  or  est  cur  scribe - 
rem,  “  I  should  have  written  oportebat ,  &c.  ut  scripsissem, 
“  O  that  they  were  wise  ;”  per  opto  utinam  saperent ;  “  may 
it  turn  out  well precor  quod  bene  vertat ,  “  do  it fac  ut 
facias ,  “  let  me  do  it ;”  sine  ut  faciam,  &c. 

Hence  it  follows  that  the  particular  English  auxiliary  by 
which  this  mood  should  be  translated,  depends,  not  upon  the 
form  of  the  Latin  verb,  seeing  scriberem  for  example  means 
equally,  “  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  write,”  but  upon 
the  ellipsis  to  be  supplied.  What  this  is,  must  always  be 
gathered  from  the  connexion  and  sense  of  the  passage. 

Obs.  6.  From  these  observations  it  will  be  manifest  that 
the  Latin  subjunctive  is  in  much  more  extensive  use  than 
either  the  subjunctive  and  potential  mood  in  English,  or  the 
subjunctive  and  optative  mood  in  Greek.  Indeed,  the  pro¬ 
per  use  and  management  of  this  mood,  constitutes  one  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  in  this  language.  For  the  construction 
of  this  mood,  see  §  139. 

Obs.  7.  When  the  ideas  of  liberty ,  power,  will ,  obligation, 
duty,  &c.  involved  in  the  auxiliaries  may,  can,  will,  shall , 
might,  could,  would,  should ,  &c.  are  to  be  expressed  in  an 
absolute,  independent,  and  emphatic  manner,  the  subjunctive 
mood  is  not  used,  but  separate  verbs  expressing  these  ideas 
in  the  indicative  mood.  These  are  such  as  licet,  volo ,  nolo, 


Ire  volumus. 

Ire  nolunt. 

Mihi  venire  licet. 
Legere  possum . 
Leg  ere  debes. 

T ibi  legendum  est. 
Te  legere  oportet . 

Fieri  potuit. 


possum ,  debeo ,  & c.  thus  : 

“We  will  go,” 

“They  will  not  go,” 
“I  may  come,” 

“  I  can  read,” 

“  Thou  shouldst  read,” 


“It might  have  been  done,” 
(absolutely  and  sometimes 
contingently. ) 


84 


THE  VERB.  —TENSES. 


‘  §  45 


Obs.  8.  The  future  indicative  is  frequently  used  in  depend¬ 
ent  and  hypothetical  clauses,  and  consequently  in  a  subjunc¬ 
tive  sense;  as,  si  jubebis  faciarn,  “if  you  order  me,  I  will 
do  it;”  equivalent  to  si  jubeas,  & c. 

III.  The  Imperative  Mood  commands,  exhorts, 
entreats,  or  permits;  as,  scribe ,  “ write  thou;” 
ito,  “  let  him  go.” 

Obs.  9.  The  present  subjunctive  is  very  often  used  instead 
of  the  imperative,  especially  in  forbidding,  after  ne ,  nemo , 
nullus ,  <fcc.  as,  Valeas ,  “farewell ;”  ne  noceas  puero ,  “  hurt 
not  the  boy  ;”  No,  4  and  5.  Besides  this,  the  future  and  fu¬ 
ture  perfect  indicative,  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  are  also 
used  imperatively.  See  §  44.  V.  1,  and  VI.  3.  §  45.  III.  4, 

IV.  The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  a  general  manner,  without  any  dis¬ 
tinction  of  person  or  number;  as,  scribere,  “to 
write  ;”  scripsisse ,  “  to  have  written;”  scribi ,  “  to 
be  written.” 


§  43.  OF  THE  TENSES. 

Tenses  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb  which 
serve  to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 

Time  is  naturally  divided  into  the  Present ,  Past  and  Fu~ 
ture ,  and  an  action  may  be  represented  either  as  incomplete 
and  continuing ,  or,  as  completed  at  the  time  spoken  of. 
This  gives  rise  to  six  tenses,  which  are  expressed  in  Latin  by 
distinct  forms  of  the  verb,  thus  : 

Hr  s  Action  continuing;  as,  scribo,  “I  write,  I  am  writing,”  Present. 

rRESENT I  Action  completed;  as,  scripsi,  11 1  have  written.”  Perject. 

p  \  Action  continuing;  as,  scribebam,  “I  was  writing.”  Impcrf. 

rAST  (  Action  completed ;  as ,  scripseram,  “  I  had  written.”  Pluperf. 

p  $  Action  continuing;  as,  scribam ,  “I  shall  or  will  write.”  Future. 

u  ‘  (  Action  completed ;  as,  scripsero,  “  I  shall  have  written.”  Fut-perf. 

In  order  better  to  express  the  time  and  the  state  of  the  ac¬ 
tion  by  one  designation,  these  tenses  in  the  above  order  might 
be  properly  denominated  the  Present ,  the  Prese?it -perfect 


THE  VERB. 


TENSES. 


85 


§  44 

the  Pasty  the  Past-perfect;  the  Future ,  and  the  Future-per 
feet. 


§  44.  TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

The  Tenses  of  the  indicative  mood  in  Latin  are 
six;  the  Present ,  the  Imperfect ,  the  Perfect ,  the 
Pluperfect ,  the  Future ,  and  the  Future-perfect. 

I.  The  Present  tense  expresses  what  is  going 
on  at  the  present  time ;  as,  scribo ,  “  I  write,  or 
“ I  am  writing;”  domus  < edificatur ,  “the  house  is 
building. 

This  tense  is  rendered  with  all  the  variety  of  the  present 
tense  in  English  ;  as,  I  write,  do  write ,  am  ivriting ;  interro- 
gativety ;  do  I  write ?  am  I  writing P  Like  the  English  pre¬ 
sent  also  it  is  used. 

1 .  to  express  what  is  habitual  or  always  true ;  as  qui  cito 
daty  bis  daty  “he  who  gives  promptly  gives  twice.” 

2.  To  express  a  general  custom,  if  still  existing;  as,  Apud 
Farthos  signum  datur  tympano.  “  Among  the  Parthians  the 
signal  is  given  by  the  drum.” 

3.  In  historical  narration  it  is  used  with  great  effect  for 
the  past  tense,  to  represent  the  past  event  as  it  were  present 
before  us  ;  thus,  Livy,  Dicto  paruere ,  desiliunt  ex  equisy  pro¬ 
volant  in  primum,  &  c.  “They  obeyed,  they  dismount,  they 
fly  forward  to  the  front,”  & c. 

4.  To  denote  an  action  which  has  continued  for  sometime 
and  which  still  exists  ;  as,  Tot  annos  bella  gero,  “For  so  many 
years  I  have  waged,  and  am  still  waging  war.” 

5.  With  certain  adverbs  of  time,  it  is  sometimes  used,  as 
in  English,  to  denote  what  is  yet  future;  as  Quam  mox  navi- 
go  Epkesiwiy  “  as  soon  as  I  sail,  or  shall  sail,  for  Ephesus.” 

6.  In  the  passive  voice,  the  present  tense  represents  its 
subject  as  at  present  acted  upon,  or  as  the  object  of  an  action 
present  and  continuing,  and  is  usually  rendered  into  English 
by  the  verb  to  be,  and  the  perfect  participle,  as  amatur ,  “  he 
is  loved,”  and  this  rendering  will  often  be  correct. 

S 


86 


THE  VERB. 


TENSES. 


§  44 


Obs.  There  are  many  verbs  however,  in  which  this  rendering  of  the 
piesent  would  be  incorrect,  as  it  does  not  express  the  present  receiv 
ing  of  an  action,  but  rather  the  present  and  continuing  effect  of  an 
act,  which  act  itself  is  now  past.  In  all  such  cases  it  is  more  pro¬ 
perly  the  rendering  of  the  perfect,  than  of  the  present  and  is  often  so 
used.  Thus  domus  cedificata  est;  opus  peractum  est ;  epistola  scripta 
est,  may  be  properly  rendered  “  the  house  is  built  j”  “  the  work  is 
finished  j”  “  the  letter  is  written  because  in  the  English,  as  well  as 
in  Latin,  the  building  of  the  house,  the  finishing  of  the  work,  and  the 
writing  of  the  letter,  are  represented  as  acts  now  past,  and  which 
are  present  only  in  their  effects.  The  proper  rendering  of  such  verbs 
in  the  present  passive,  is  by  the  verb  to  be,  and  the  present  par¬ 
ticiple  in  -ing  in  the  passive  sense;  thus,  domus  cedificatur.  “The 
house  is  building;”  opus  peragitur,  “  the  work  is  finishing  :”  epistola 
scribitur,  “  the  letter  is  writing.”  When  this  mode  of  expression  is  not 
authorised,  and  when  the  other  would  be  improper,  it  will  be  necessa¬ 
ry  to  express  the  precise  idea  of  the  present  by  some  other  form  of 
expression  ;  thus,  dux  vulneratur  strictly  means,  “  the  general  is  now 
receiving  a  wound,”  and  should  be  so  rendered.  We  cannot  say  “the 
general  is  wounded,”  because  that  implies  that  the  act  of  wounding 
is  past,  as  in  the  above  examples.  Neither  can  we  say,  “  the  general 
is  wounding,”  because  the  participle  “  wounding,”  according  to  Eng¬ 
lish  usage  has  not  a  passive  sense.  The  mode  of  forming  a  present 
passive  by  such  expressions  as,  “  the  house  is  being  built,”  “  the  work 
is  being  done,”  “  the  general  is  being  wounded,”  is  a  recent  and 
clumsy  innovation.  On  examination  it  will  be  found  as  incorrect  as 
it  is  barbarous  and  inelegant,  and  should  therefore  be  avoided.  See 
English  Gram.  §  31. 

II.  The  Imperfect  tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  passing  and  still  unfinished  at  a  certain 
time  past,  expressed  or  implied ;  as,  Bomum  adifica- 
bat,  “  he  was  (then)  building  a  house.”  Ibam 
forte  via  sacra ,  UI  was  accidentally  (viz.  at  the 
time  spoken  of,)  going  along  the  via  sacra P 

This  tense  corresponds  to  the  English  imperfect  definite. , 
Eng.  Gr.  §  24.  II.  It  is,  however,  often  used  indefinitely,  and 
hence  it  is  rendered  by  all  the  variety  that  belongs  to  that 
tense  in  English  ;  as,  scribebam ,  (indefinite)  “  I  wrote,  did 
write;”  (definite)  “I  was  writing;”  (interrogatively)  “did 
I  write  ?  was  I  writing?”  Besides 


THE  VERB. — TENSES, 


87 


§  44 

1.  It  is  used  to  denote  what  was  usual  or  customaiy  at 
some  past  time  ;  as,  Scribebam,  “I  was  accustomed  to  write.” 

2.  It  is  used  to  denote  an  action  which  had  existed  for  some 
time  and  was  still  existing  at  a  certain  past  time;  as,  Tot  an « 
nos  bella  gerebam,  “  For  so  many  years  I  had  been,  and  then 
still  was  waging  war."  Sometimes  it  denotes  an  action 
desired,  intended,  or  attempted,  but  not  accomplished;  as, 
Porsena  eum  terrebat,  “  Porsena  attempted  to  f  righten  him. 

3.  It  is  sometimes  used  hypothetically  instead  of  the  im¬ 
perfect  subjunctive;  as,  Anceps  certamen  erat ,  nisi  equites 
supervenissent ,  “  the  battle  would  have  been  doubtful,”  &c. 

4.  The  same  observations  made  in  I.  6.  and  Obs.  in  reference 
to  the  present  passive,  are  applicable  in  all  their  extent  to  the 
imperfect;  as,  amabatur ,  “he  was  loved;”  domus  cedifica - 
batur ,  “  the  house  was  building,”  not  “  was  built ;”  nor  “  was 
Deing  built;”  opus  peragebatur ,  “the  wcrk  was  finish, 
ing,”  &c. 

III.  The  Perfect  tense  is  used  in  two  different 
senses ;  First  it  represents  an  action  as  just  com¬ 
pleted  at  the  present  time ;  or,  if  in  past  time,  still 
as  continued  to,  and  in  some  way  connected  with 
the  present.  Secondly,  as  completed  in  some  in¬ 
definite  past  time. 

In  the  first  sense,  it  is  definite ,  and  corresponds  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  perfect;  as,  scripsi ,  “I  have  written;”  hujus  ad  me- 
moriam  nostram  monumenta  manserunt  duo ,  “  two  monu¬ 
ments  of  him  have  remained  to  our  day.” 

In  the  second  sense  it  is  indefinite,  and  corresponds  to  the 
indefinite  form  of  the  English  Imperfect,  (Eng.  Gr.  §  24.  II.) 
as,  scripsi ,  “I  wrote,”  or  “did  write.”  Inthis  sense  it  is  com¬ 
monly  used  in  historical  narrative,  and  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  Aorist, — thus,  Ccesar  exerdtum  fimbus  Italice  adm6- 
vit ,  Rubicon  transiit ,  Rornam  occupavit ,  “  Caesar  marched 
his  army  to  the  confines  of  Italy,  crossed  the  Rubicon,  and 
took  possession  of  Rome.” 

1.  This  tense,  used  indefinitely,  is  sometimes  coupled  with 
the  imperfect,  the  former  denoting  a  transitory,  the  latter  a 
continued  action,  thus  ;  Virg.  Conticuere  omnest  intentique  dra 


the  VERB. - TENSES.  §  44 

tenebant. — “All  were  silent,  and  with  eager  attention  kept 

th°ir  eyes  fixed  upon  him.” 

2.  It  is  sometimes  used  like  the  present,  to  express  what 
is  true  at  any  time ;  thus,  Virg.  Felix  qui  potuit  rerum ,  cog¬ 
nosces  cau-sas ,  “  Happy  is  that  man,  who  is  able  to  investi¬ 
gate  the  causes  of  things.” 

3.  Sometimes  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  pluperfect ;  as 
Quce  postquam  evolvit — ligavit ,  “  After  he  had  separated 
these  things, — he  bound  them,”  &c.  Ovid. 

4.  It  is  also  used  poetically  for  the  imperfect  and  pluper¬ 
fect  of  the  subjunctive;  as,  nec  veni ,  nisi,  &c.  “Nor  v*,uld 
I  have  come,  unless,”  & c. 

5.  In  the  passive  form  this  tense  is  compound,  consisting 
of  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb,  and  the  present  or  per¬ 
fect  tense  of  sum  as  an  auxiliary ;  as,  amdtus  sum ,  or  ama - 
tus  fui,  “  I  have  been  loved.” 

Note. — In  all  compound  tenses,  the  participle  must  be  in  the  same 
gender  and  number  with  the  nominative  to  the  verb. 

IV.  The  Pluperfect  tense  represents  an  action 
as  completed  at,  or  before  some  past  time  expressed 
or  implied ;  and  if  before  it,  still  continued  to  and 
in  some  way  connected  with  it ;  as,  scripseram, 
“  I  had  written.” 

This  tense  corresponds  to  the  pluperfect  in  English  and  is 
rendered  by  it.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  perfect  that 
the  imperfect  does  to  the  present. 

1.  The  pluperfect  is  sometimes  used,  especially  by  the 
poets,  for  the  perfect  indicative,  and  also  for  the  pluperfect 
subjunctive  ;  as,  Fixer  am  a  principio ,  ut  de  republicd  sile- 
retur , — Cic.  “  I  have  said  from  the  beginning,”  &c.  Si 
mens  non  Iceva  fuisset,  impulerat,  &c.  Virg. — “  he  would 
have  impelled .”  The  same  idiom  is  found  in  English,  “  he 
had  impelled ,”  for  “he  would  have  impelled.” 

2.  In  the  passive  form  this  tense,  like  the  perfect  is  com¬ 
pound,  consisting  of  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect 
or  pluperfect  of  sum  used  as  an  auxiliary  ;  as,  amaius  eram% 
or  amdtus  fueram,  “  I  had  been  loved. 

Note. — In  these  compound  forms,  the  participle  seems  to  be  consi 
dered  sometimes  as  little  different  from  an  adjective.  In  such  cases, 


§45 


THE  VERB. - TENSES. 


89 


sum  becomes  the  verb  and  is  rendered  by  its  own  tense  j  as,  opu. 
"per actum  est,  “  the  work  is  finished;”  finitus  jam  labor  erat ,  “  the  la- 
bor  ivas  now  finished.” 

V.  The  Future  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  indefinitely  as  yet  to  come;  as,  scribam , 
“  I  shall  or  will  write.” 

1.  This  tense  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  the  impe¬ 
rative  ;  as,  liques  vina ,  “  filtrate  the  wine.”  Hor. 

2.  The  participle  in  - rus ,  with  the  verb  sum,  is  frequently 
used  instead  of  the  future,  especially  if  purpose  or  intention 
is  signified  ;  as,  scripturus  sum,  u  I  am  going  to  write.” 

VI.  The  Future-perfect  intimates  that  an  ac¬ 
tion  or  event  will  he  completed  at  or  before  a  cer¬ 
tain  time  yet  future;  as,  scripsero ,  “I  shall  have 
written ;”  viz,  at  or  before  some  future  time  or 
event.  In  the  passive  it  has  two  forms ;  as  scrip - 
tus  ero  or  scriptus  fuero ,  the  first  denoting  the 
completion  of  a  future  action  indefinitely,  the  se¬ 
cond  as  in  the  active  voice. 

1.  This  tense,  sometimes  called  the  Future  subjunctive; 
properly  belongs  to  the  indicative  mood,  both  in  signification 
and  construction.  For  the  Future  subjunctive  see  §  45.  1. 

2.  Though  the  proper  rendering  of  this  tense  be  shall  have , 
yet  generally  the  have  or  the  shall ,  and  frequently  both,  are 
omitted  ;  as,  qui  Antonium  oppressor  it ,  is  helium  confecerit , 
“  he  who  shall  cut  off  Antony  shall  put  an  end  to  the  war.” 

3.  This  tense  is  also  used  imperatively  ;  as,  memineris  tu , 
“  remember  thou  ille  viderit ,  “  let  him  see  to  it.” 


$  45.  TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood  are  the  Present,  the 
Imperfect ,  the  Perfect ,  and  the  Pluperfect. 

1.  There  is  no  distinct  form  of  a  future  in  the  subjunctive, 
all  the  tenses  of  this  mood  sometimes  incline  to  a  future  sig¬ 
nification.  But  when  a  future  subjunctive  is  required  the 

8* 


90 


THE  VERB. - TENSES. 


§  45 

future  participle  in  -rus  with  the  verb  sum  in  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  present,  is  used  ;  as,  haud  dubito  quin  facturus  sit ,  “  I 
doubt  not  that  he  will  do  it.” 

2.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood  in  Latin,  like  those 
of  the  potential  in  English,  are  much  less  definite  in  respect 
of  time,  than  the  tenses  of  the  indicative,  being  modified  by 
the  time  and  meaning  of  the  verbs  with  which  they  stand 
connected. 

3.  All  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood  are  often  render¬ 
ed  like  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative,  §  42.  II.  1st. 

I.  The  Present  subjunctive  is  generally  render¬ 
ed  by  may  or  can ,  expressing  present  liberty,  or 
ability;  as,  scribam ,  “I  may  write.”  But, 

1. Thistense  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  the  imperative 
mood  to  express  a  command,  entreaty,  or  exhortation ;  as, 
amem,  “  let  me  love.”  This  use  is  always  elliptical  §  42. 
Obs.  4.  5. 

2.  After  quasi ,  tanquam,  and  the  like,  it  is  sometimes  ren¬ 
dered  as  the  imperfect  indicative  ;  as  quasi  intelligant ,  “as  if 
they  understood.” 

3.  When  a  question  is  asked  it  is  frequently  rendered 

as  the  indicative  ;  as,  Eloquar  an  sileam  ?  “  Shall  I  speak 

or  be  silent?”  Sometimes  by  should;  as,  Singula  quid 
refe ram,  “  Why  should  I  relate  every  thing?  Sometimes 
by  would;  as  In  f acinus  jurdsse  putes>  “You  would  think 
they  had  sworn  to  commit  wickedness.” 

II.  The  Imperfect  subjunctive  is  commonly 
rendered  by  the  signs  might ,  could ,  would ,  or 
should ,  expressing  past  liberty ,  power ,  will,  or  obli¬ 
gation;  as,  scriberem ,  “  I  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  write.” 

1 .  This  tense  may  relate  either  to  what  is  past,  or  present, 
or  future  ;  as,  si  fata  fuissent  ut  cadPrem ,  “  if  my  destiny  had 
been  that  I  should  fall;”  si  possem  sanior  essem ,  “  If  I  could 
I  would  be  wiser;”  post  hwc  prwcipitem  darem,  “after¬ 
wards  I  would  throw  him  down  headlong.” 

2.  Sometimes  the  imperfect  is  rendered  as  the  pluperfect ; 
as,  si  quis  diceret ,  nunquam  putarem ,”  &c.  “  If  any  one  had 
said  it,  I  never  would  have  thought,”  &c. 


THE  VERB. 


TENSES. 


91 


3.  After  quo  minus ,  the  whole  may  often  be  rendered  by 
jrom  with  the  present  participle ;  as,  Si  te  tua  infir  mhos 
valetudirds  tenuity  quo  minus  ad  ludos  venires.  If  your 
weak  state  of  health  has  prevented  you  from  coming  to  the 
games.  So,  Ne  quis  impediretur  quo  minus  ejus  rebus 
frueretur.  Nep.  Deterrere  aliquem  quo  minus,  &c. 

III.  The  Perfect  subjunctive  is  used  to  denote 
an  act  or  event,  spoken  of  as  already  past,  or 
which  will  be  past  at  some  future  time,  but 
about  which  there  is  at  present  some  contingency 
or  uncertainty,  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  It 
is  commonly  rendered  by  the  signs  may  have ; 
as ,fortasse  scripserim ,  “  perhaps  I  may  have  writ¬ 
ten,”  implying,  “  if  so,  I  have  at  present  forgot¬ 
ten  it.” 

This  general  idea  is  expressed  with  much  variety  in 
En  glish,  according  as  the  tense  stands  connected  with  other 
words  in  the  sentence.  This  will  be  best  explained  by  a  few 
examples. 

1.  It  is  sometimes  rendered  like  the  present;  as,  ut  sic 
dixerim ,  “that  I  may  so  speak.”  Sometimes  like  the  imper¬ 
fect  ;  as,  Ubi  ego  audiverim ,  “  where  should  I  have  heard 
it;”  fortasse  erraverim  “  perhaps  I  might  be  in  an  error.” 

2.  This  tense  sometimes  inclines  very  much  to  a  future 
signification,  and  is  rendered  by  should ,  ivould ,  could ,  can , 
will,  shall;  as,  Cilius  crediderim ,  “I  should  sooner  be¬ 
lieve;”  Juv.  Libenter  ciudierim ,  “I  would  gladly  hear,” 
Cic;  Ciceronem  cuicunque  eorum  facile  opposuerim ,  “I  could 
easily  match  Cicero  with  any  of  them.”  Non  facile  dixerim, 
“  I  cannot  well  tell ;”  Nec  tamen  excluserim  alios ,  “  and  yet  I 
will  not  exclude  others.”  Sipaululum  modo  quid  tefuge- 
rit,  ego  perierim,  “If  any  thing  however  trifling  escape 
you,  I  shall  be  undone.”  Ter. 

3.  After  quasi ,  tanquam ,  and  the  like,  it  is  sometimes 
rendered  by  had  ;  as,  quasi  affuerirn ,  “  As  if  I  had  been  pre- 
sent;” — perinde  ac  si  jam  nicer  int,  “just  as  if  they  had  al¬ 
ready  conquered.” 

4.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  concessions ;  as,  parta  sit  pe- 
yxnic,  “  suppose  the  money  were  gotten.”  Sometimes  as 


92 


llJE  VE£B. - TENSES. 


§  46 

the  imperative,  with  the  idea  of  urgency;  as,  hcec  dicta  shit 
patnbus,  “  Let  these  things  be  told  quickly  to  the  fathers.” 

IV.  The  Pluperfect  subjunctive  denotes  an  ac¬ 
tion  or  event  contingent  at  some  past  time,  but 
regarded  as  to  be  perfected  before  another  action 
or  time  subsequent  to  it  and  connected  with  it, 
as, 

Quodcunque .  jussisset  me  facturum  esse  dixi ,  “  I  said 
(then)  that  I  would  do  whatever  he  should  order.”  Here 
his  ordering  was  contingent  at  the  time  referred  to,  (then) 
but  it  was  to  take  place  before  the  doing  connected  with  it 
so,  Id  responderunt  se  facturos  esse, cum  ille  venlo  AquilDne 
Lemnum  venisset ,  “  They  replied  that  they  would  do  that  when 
he  should  return  to  Lemnos  with  a  north  wind.”  In  such 
constructions  the  leading  verb  is  usually  in  the  past  tense,  or 
in  the  present  used  for  the  past.  It  is  variously  rendered  by 
would ,  could ,  might ,  had ,  might  have ,  could  have ,  ivould 
have ,  should  have ,  or  ought  to  have ;  as,  si  jussisset ,  paruissem , 
“  If  he  had  commanded,  I  would  have  obeyed.”  Hence  ob¬ 
serve. 

1.  That  though  the  action  or  state  is  often  future  in  res¬ 
pect  to  the  time  of  the  leading  verb,  yet  it  is  past  with  re¬ 
gard  to  the  action  or  state  dependent  on  it. 

2.  After  quum  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  pluperfect  to 
express  an  action  antecedent  to  another  past  action  connected 
with  it ;  as,  Ccesar  quum  hcec  dixisset ,  profectus  est ,  “  When 
Csesar  had  said  these  things  he  departed.”  Thus  used,  quum 
with  the  pluperfect,  may  be  elegantly  rendered  by  the  com¬ 
pound  perfect  participle  in  English ;  thus  the  above  example 
may  be  rendered,  “  Caesar  having  said  these  things,  departed.” 


$  46.  TENSES  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE. 

The  Imperative  mood  in  Latin,  has  only  one  tense,  name¬ 
ly,  the  present.  Still  the  act  fiom  the  nature  of  this  mood 
is  necessarily  future  ;  as,  scribe ,  “  write  thou.”  The  com¬ 
mand  is  present,  the  act  commanded,  future. 

The  other  tenses  used  imperatively,  are  the  future  and  fu- 


THE  VERB.—  TENSES. 


93 


§  47 

ture-perfect  indicative,  and  the  present,  and  perfect  subjunc¬ 
tive  ;  which  see. 


§  47.  TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  are  three,  the  Pre¬ 
sent ,  the  Perfect  and  the  Future ,  and  in  the  ac¬ 
tive  voice,  the  Future-perfect. 

In  Latin,  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  express  its  action  as 
past,  present,  or  future,  not  with  regard  to  the  present  time, 
as  in  the  other  moods,  but  with  regard  to  the  time  of  the 
leading  verb,  on  which  it  is  dependent,  i.  e. 

1.  The  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action  or  state 
expressed  by  the  verb  as  present,  and  going  on  at  the  time 
of  the  leading  verb,  and  consequently  must  be  rendered  into 
English  in  the  time  of  the  leading  verb  ;  as,  dixit  se  scribere , 
“he  said  that  he  ivas  writing;”  dicit  se  scribere ,  “he  says 
that  he  is  writing.”  See  No.  5. 

2.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  the  action  or  state 
expressed  by  the  verb,  as  past  at  the  time  of  the  leading  verb, 
and  must  be  rendered  accordingly,  i.  e.,  after  a  past  tense, 
by  the  English  Pluperfect ;  and  after  the  present,  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  imperfect  or  perfect ;  as,  dixit  se  scripsisse ,  “  he  said 
that  he  had  written ;”  dicit  se  scripsisse ,  “  he  says  that  he 
has  written.” 


3.  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  the  action  or  state 
expressed  by  the  verb,  as  future  at  the  time  of  the  leading 
verb,  and  must  be  rendered  accordingly ;  as,  dixit  se  scriptu - 
rum  esse ,  “he  said  that  he  would  write;”  dicit  se  scriptu- 
rum  esse ,  “  he  says  that  he  will  write.” 

4.  The  future  infinitive  active  is  compound,  being  made  up 
of  esse ,  or  fuisse,  and  the  participle  in  -rus  agreeing  in  gen¬ 
der,  number  and  case  with  the  accusative  before  it,  or  with 
Ihe  nominative  of  the  leading  verb.  With  me,  it  corresponds 
'.o  the  future  indicative  ;  with  fuisse ,  to  the  future-perfect; 
ns,  dixit  se  scripiurum  esse ,  “  be  said  that  he  would  write  ;” 
licit,  eos  scripfU ros  esse ,  “lie  says  that  they  will  write; 
ii  o',  it  earn  scripturam  fuisse ,  “be  said  that  she  would  have 
/vritten  ;”  dicit  se  scripturam  fuisse,  “  he  says  that  he  would 


THE  VERB. - TENSES. 


have  written dicitur  scriptUrus  esse ,  “  he  is  said  to  oe 
about  to  write.” 

Note.  1.  Esse  and  fuisse,  in  the  future  infinitive,  are  generally  un¬ 
derstood;  thus ,dixit  se  scripturum ;  and  so  of  others. 

5.  When  the  leading  verb  is  in  the  future  tense,  the  infi¬ 
nitive  mood  will  be  properly  translated  in  its  own  tense,  not 
in  that  of  the  leading  verb  ;  as,  dicet  se  scribere ,  “  he  will 
say  that  he  is  writing ;”  dicet  se  scripsisse ,  “  he  will  say 
that  he  has  written  ;”  dicet  se  scripturum  esse,  “he  will  say 
that  he  will  write;”  se  scripturum  fuisse,  “that  he  will  have 
written.”  So  also  in  the  passive  voice. 

6.  The  perfect  infinitive  passive  is  made  up  of  esse  or  fu¬ 
isse  and  the  perfect  participle  in  -us,  agreeing  in  gender,  num¬ 
ber  and  case  with  the  accusative  before  it,  or  with  the  nomi¬ 
native  of  the  leading  verb,  when  that  is  in  the  passive  voice  ; 
as,  dicit  liter  as  scriptas  esse,  “he  says  that  letters  were 
written  ;”  literce  dicuntur  script ce  esse,  “  letters  are  said  to 
have  been  written,”  &c.  Esse  and  fuisse  are  sometimes  un¬ 
derstood.  See  Note  1. 

7.  The  future  infinitive  passive  is  also  a  compound  tense, 
consisting  of  the  former  supine,  and  iri  the  present  infinitive 
passive  of  eo  ;  as,  scriptum  iri,  “to  be  about  to  be  written.” 

8.  The  future  infinitive  of  deponent  verbs,  §  72  is  made 
with  esse  or  fuisse,  and  the  participle  in -rus,  as  in  the  active 
voice  No.  4,  and  not  like  the  future  infinitive  passive. 

9.  When  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  has  no  supine,  and 
consequently  no  participle  in-n^s,  there  can  of  course  be  no 
future  infinitive.  In  this  case  the  want  of  it  is  supplied  by 
the  future  infinitive  of  sum,  viz.  fuluruvi  esse ,  or  fore  fol¬ 
lowed  by  ut,  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  present  or  imperfect, 
as  the  leading  verb  may  require.  Thus,  dixit  fore  ut  lu- 
geret  “he  said  that  he  would  mourn dicit  fore  ut  lugeat, 
“  he  says  that  he  will  mourn.” 

Note.  2.  This  form  of  expression  is  often  used  both  in  the  active 
and  passive,  even  when  the  verb  has  the  regular  form  of  the  future 
infinitive.  §  145.  Obs.  6. 

10.  Fore  the  infinitive  of  sum  is  used  with  all  participles 
in-ws;  as,  Commissum  cum  equitdtu  prcelio  fore  videbat , 
Cses.  Deinde  addis ,  te  fore  venturum ,  Cic.  Mitt endos  fore 
legatos.  Liv. 

11.  The  infinitive  mood  with  a  subject,  i.e.  with  an  accu 


THE  VEilB. - TENSES. 


95 


§  * 

sa.ive  before  it  is  usually  rendered  as  the  indicative,  the  par¬ 
ticle  that ,  being  commonly  placed  before  it.  The  following 
examples  will  illustrate  the  method  of  translating  the  diffe¬ 
rent  tenses,  of  the  infinitive  when  preceded  by  the  leading 
verb  in  present,  past,  and  future  time. 

INFINITIVE  ACTIVE. 

1  Dicit  me  scribtre ,  He  says  that  I  write,  or  am  writing 

2  Dixit  me  scribZre,  He  said  that  I  wrote,  or  was  writing. 

3  Dicet  me  scribere,  He  will  say  that  I  am  writing. 

4  Dicit  me  scripsisse,  He  says  that  I  wrote,  or  did  write. 

5  Dixit  me  scripsisse,  He  said  that  I  had  written. 

6  Dicet  me  scripsisse,  He  will  say  that  I  have  written,  or  did  write. 

7  Dicit  me  scripturum  esse,  He  says  that  I  will  write. 

8  Dixit  me  scripturum  esse,  He  said  that  I  would  write. 

9  Dicet  me  scriptu  um  esse,  He  will  say  that  I  will  write. 

10  Dicit  me  scripturum  fuisse,  He  says  that  I  would  have  written. 

11  Dixit  me  scripturum  fuisse,  He  said  that  I  would  have  written. 

12  Dicet  me  scripturum  fuisse ,  He  will  say  that  I  would  have  written 

INFINITIVE  PASSIVE. 

13  Dicit  literas  scribi,  He  says  that  letters  are  written,  or  writing. 

14  Dixit  literas  scribi,  He  said  that  letters  were  written,  or  writing. 

15  Dicet  literas  scribi #  He  vrill  say  that  letters  are  written,  or  writing. 

16  Dicit  literas  scriptas  esse,  He  says  that  letters  are,  or  were  written 

17  Dixit  literas  scriptas  esse,  He  said  that  letters  had  been  written. 

18  Dicet  literas  scriptas  esse,  He  will  say  that  letters  are,  or  were 

written. 

19  Dicit  literas  scriptas  fuisse,  He  says  that  letters  have  been  written. 

20  Dixit  literas  scriptas  f  uisse,  He  said  that  letters  had  been  written. 

21  Dicet  literas  scriptas  fuisse, He  will  say  that  letters  have  been  written 

22  Dicit  literas  scriptum  iri,  He  says  that  letters  will  be  written. 

23  Dixit  literas  scriptum  iri,  He  said  that  letters  would  be  written. 

24  Dicet  literas  scriptum  iri,  He  will  say  that  letters  will  be  written 

Note  3. — When  the  preceding  verb  is  of  the  imperfect,  or  plupcr. 
feet  tense,  the  English  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same  as  when  it  is  of  the 
oerfect,  i.  e.  is  the  same  as  the  infinitive  after  dixit,  in  the  above  ta- 
ole. 

Note  4.— As  the  perfect  definite,  <5  "4.  Ill,  connects  the  action  com 


96 


THE  VEiiB. 


TENSES. 


§  48 

pleted  with  the  present  time,  the  infinitive  after  it,  in  this  sense,  will 
generally  be  translated  as  it  is  after  the  present ;  as,  dixit  me  scrt 
bZre,- — scripsisse, — scripturum  esse,  he  has  said  that  I  am  writing, — 
was  writing, — will  write,  i.  e.  as  it  is  in  Examples  No.  1,  4,  and 
7.  With  dixit  used  indefinitely ,  the  infinitive  would  be  rendered  as 
in  Examples  No.  2,  5,  and  8. 


§  48.  OF  NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

1.  Every  tense  of  the  verb  has  two  numbees,  the  singu¬ 
lar  and  plural,  corresponding  to  the  singular  and  plural  of 
Nouns  and  Pronouns. 

2.  In  each  number,  the  verb  has  three  persons,  called  first, 
second  and  third.  The  first  asserts  of  the  person  speaking; 
the  second  of  the  person  spoken  to ;  and  the  third  of  the  per¬ 
son  or  thing  spoken  of.  In  the  Imperative  there  are  only- 
two  persons,  the  second  and  third. 

3.  The  subject  or  nominative  of  the  verb  in  the  first  per¬ 
son  singular,  is  always  ego,  in  the  plural,  nos;  in  the  second 
person  singular,  tu;  in  the  plural,  vos.  These  are  seldom  ex¬ 
pressed,  being  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  termination  of  the 
verb;  as ,  scribo,  “  I  write  ;”  scribvmus,  “  we  write;”  scri- 

his ,  “  thou  writest,”  scribitis  “you  write.” 

The  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  third  person,  is  any  person 
or  thing  spoken  of,  whether  it  be  expressed  by  a  noun,  pro¬ 
noun,  infinitive,  gerund,  or  clause  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  vir  scri- 

hit ,  “the  man  writes;”  illi  legunt ,  “-they  read;”  ludere 
jueundum  est ,  “to  play  is  pleasant;”  incertum  est ,  qnam 
longa  vita fiutura  sit ,  “how  long  our  life  will  be  is  uncer¬ 
tain.” 

4.  Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  together  may  be  the 
subject  of  one;  verb.  If  these  happen  to  be  of  different  per¬ 
sons,  the  verb  takes  the  first  person,  rather  than  the  second 
or  third,  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third  ;  as,  Ego,  et  tu , 
et  ille  scribhnus ,  “  I  and  thou  and  he  write.” 

5.  Pronouns,  participles  or  adjectives  having  nouns  under¬ 
stood  to  them,  are  of  the  third  person.  Qui  takes  the  person 
of  the  antecedent.  Ipse  may  be  joined  to  any  person,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  sense. 

6.  To  verbs  also  belong  Par ticiples,  Gerunds  and.  Suphies . 


THE  VERB. - PARTICIPLES. 


97 


J  19 

§  49.  PARTICIPLES. 

1.  Participles  are  parts  of  the  verb  which  contain  no 
affirmation,  but  express  the  meaning  of  the  verb  considered 
as  a  general  quality  or  condition  of  an  object;  as,  amans , 
“loving;”  doctus ,  “learned.” 

2.  Participles  belong  partly  to  the  verb,  and  partly  to  the 
adjective.  From  the  former  they  have  signification ,  voice 
and  tense ;  from  the  latter,  declension  ;  those  in  -ns  are  of  the 
third  declension,  and  declined  like  prudens ,  §  21.2;  all 
others  are  of  the  first  and  second,  and  declined  like  bonus , 
§  20.  1.  In  construction  they  have  the  government  of  the 
verb,  and  the  concord  or  agreement  of  the  adjective,  §  98. 

3.  When  the  idea  of  time  is  separated  from  the  participle, 
it  becomes  a  participial  or  verbal  adjective,  and  is  capable  of 
comparison;  as,  doctus ,  doctior ,  doctissimus ,  “learned,  more 
learned,  most  learned.” 

4.  To  the  same  class  also  belong  participles  whose  mean¬ 
ing  is  reversed  or  modified  by  composition  with  words  or 
participles  never  combined  with  other  parts  of  the  same 
verb  ;  as,  innocens ,  in  doctus,  impransus ,  nefandus ,  &c. 

5.  The  time  of  the  participle  like  that  of  the  infinitive  is 
estimated  from  the  time  of  the  leading  verb ;  i.  e.  the  accom¬ 
panying  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  participle  is  present, 
past,  or  future,  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  leading  verb, 
with  which  it  is  connected;  thus,  vidi  mm  venientem ,  “I 
saw  him  coming.”  Numa,  Curtbus  ndtus ,  rex  creatus  est , 
“Numa  born  at  Cures  was  made  king.”  Elephantes  amnem 
transituri  minhnos  prcemittunt ,  “Elephants  about  to  cross  a 
river  send  the  smallest  first.” 

Note  1. — The  perfect  participle,  both  of  deponent  and  common 
verbs  often  expresses  an  action,  nearly  or  entirely  contemporaneous 
with  that  of  the  leading  verb.  In  such  cases  it  is  better  rendered  into 
English  by  the  present  participle  in  -mg  than  by  its  ordinary  render¬ 
ing  ;  as,  Hoc f acinus  rex  miratus  juvSnem  dimisit,  “  The  king  admir¬ 
ing  this  act  dismissed  the  youth,”  Liv.  Arbitratus  id  helium  celeriter 
conf  tci  posse,  eo  exercitum  adduxit.  Cees.  Hac  arte  Pollux — enistjs, 
arces  attigit  igneas.  Hor.  Columba  fixamque  refert  delapsa  sagittam. 
Yirg.  Putri  bis  ssni  quemque  secuti,  agmine  partito,  fulgent.  So  also 
the  perfect  participle  of  the  active  verb,  see  No.  8,  Note  3. 

6.  The  future  passive  participle  in  -dus  sometimes  expres- 

9 


98 


THE  VERB. - PARTICIPLES. 


§  49 

sos  bare  futurity  as,  his  (scil.  ventis)  quoque  habendum  a'era 
permisit,  “to  these  also  he  gave  the  region  of  the  air  to  be 
possessed.”  But  in  conjunction  with  the  verb  sum  and  fre¬ 
quently  also  in  other  constructions,  it  denotes  necessity ,  pro¬ 
priety ,  or  obligation ,  and  hence  by  inference,  futurity ;  as, 
Delenda  est  Carthago ,  “  Carthage  must  be  destroyed.”  Facta 
narrabas  dissimulanda  tibi,  “  You  were  relating  facts  which 
you  should  have  concealed.” 

7.  The  participle  in-dus  of  transitive  verbs  is  often  used 
in  the  oblique  cases  in  the  sense  of  the  gerund.  Thus  used 
it  is  called  a  Gerundive  participle,  and  agrees  with  its  sub¬ 
stantive  in  gender  and  number  ;  and  both  take  the  case  which 
the  gerund  would  have  in  the  same  place,  thus ;  tempus  pe- 
tendce  pads ,  by  the  gerund,  is  petendi  pdce?n  ;  “  time  of  seek¬ 
ing  peace,”  rerum  repetunddrum  causA  “for the  sake  of  de¬ 
manding  redress ;”  by  the  gerund,  repetundi  res. 

Note  2. — Crombie,  as  well  as  Perizonius,  to  whom  he  refers,  thinks 
that  the  participle  in-dws,  is  strictly  and  properly  a  present  passive 
participle  j  that  the  ideas  of  futurity  as  well  as  of  necessity  or  obliga 
gation  supposed  to  be  expressed  by  it,  are  not  inherent  in  the  word, 
but  have  come  by  usage  to  be  assigned  to  it,  in  certain  connexions.  It 
is  certain  the  arguments  in  support  of  this  opinion,  are  not  without 
great  weight,  yet  as  no  inconvenience  can  arise  from  regarding  it  as 
future,  and  as  necessity,  obligation,  propriety,  and  consequently  fu¬ 
turity  are  commonly  expressed  by  it,  it  has  been  thought  proper  to 
retain  the  usual  designation.  Still  if  the  opinion  just  stated  is  cor¬ 
rect,  it  affords  an  easy  and  natural  explanation  of  what  is  called  the 
gerundive  use  of  this  participle  ;  it  is  only  expressing  by  a  passive 
form  in  Latin,  an  idea  which  we  now  commonly  express  in  English, 
by  the  active  form  Thus, 

Active  form  ;  tempus  petendi  pacem,  “  time  of  seeking  peace.” 

Passive  form  ;  tempus  petendae  pads,  “  time  of  peace  being  sought.” 

These  different  forms  express  the  same  idea  both  in  Latin  and 
English,  but  as  the  passive  form  is  not  usual  in  English,  the  active 
is  used  as  the  rendering  of  both  forms  in  Latin. 

8.  The  Latin  language  has  no  perfect  participle  in  the  ac¬ 
tive  voice,  nor  present  participle  in  the  passive,  unless  the 
participle  in  -dus  be  so  considered.  The  want  of  the  former 
is  made  up  in  two  ways.  First ,  by  the  perfect  participle 
passive  in  the  case  absolute  as,  Ccesar ,  his  diet  is ,  profeclus  est , 
“Caesar,  (these  things  being  said,  i.  e.)  having  said  these 
things  departed.”  And  Secondly,  by  quum  with  the  pluper 


§60 


GERUNDS  AND  SUPINES. 


99 


feet  subjunctive;  as,  Ccesar,  qiium  hcec  dixisset ,  profectut 
est ,  “Caesar  (when  he  had  said,  i.  e.)  having  said  these  things, 
departed.” 

Note  3 — .The  want  of  the  present  participle  passive,  is  made  up 
either  by  the  perfect  participle,  or  by  the  future  participle  in  -dus,  both 
of  which  appear  to  be  sometimes  used  in  a  present  sense  ;  as,  Notus 
evolat  piced  tectus  caligine,  “  Notus  flies  forth  (being)  covered  with 
pitchy  darkness,  Ovid.  Volvenda  dies  en  attulit  ultro,  “Lo!  re - 
volving  time  (lit.  time  being  rolled  on)  hath  of  itself  brought  about. ” 
Yirg.  Or  by  the  gerundive  form  of  expression  as  in  No.  7,  together 
with  Note  2.  See  also,  No.  5,  Note  1. 

9.  Transitive  (or  Active)  verbs  have  four  participles  of 
which  the  present  in  -ns,  and  the  future  in  - rus ,  belong  to 
the  active  voice  ;  the  perfect  in  -tus,  - sus ,  or  -xus,  and  the 
future  in  -dus,  to  the  passive. 

10.  Intransitive  (or  Neuter)  verbs  have  two  participles, 
namely,  the  present  in  -ns,  and  the  future  in  -rus;  frequently 
also  the  future  passive  in  -dus,  and  also  the  perfect  passive. 

11.  Neuter  passive  verbs  have  commonly  three  participles, 
namely,  the  present,  perfect,  and  future  in  -rus,  §  78. 

12.  Deponent  verbs  of  an  active  signification  have  general¬ 
ly  four  participles  ;  those  of  a  neuter  signification  commonly 
want  the  future  in  -dus,  except  that  the  neuter  in  -dum  is 
sometimes  used  impersonally. 

13.  Common  verbs  have  generally  four  participles,  of 
which  the  perfect  only  is  used  both  in  an  active  and  passive 
sense;  as,  adep tus  victor iam,  “  having  obtained  the  victory ;” 
victoria  adeptd ,  “the  victory  being  obtained;”  the  rest  are  ac¬ 
tive,  §  72.  Obs.  2. 

14.  Some  Intransitive  verbs,  though  they  have  no  -pas¬ 
sive,  yet  have  participles  of  the  perfect  passive  form,  but 
still  with  an  intransitive  signification  ;  such  are  casndtus , 
“having  supped;”  pransus,  “having  dined;”  juratus, 
“  having  sworn.” 


§  50.  GERUNDS  AND  SUPINES 

The  Gerund  is  a  kind  of  verbal  noun  used  only  in  the 
singular  number.  It  represents  the  action  or  state  ex¬ 
pressed  by  the  verb  as  a  thing  now  going  on,  and  at  the  same 


100 


VERBS. - CONJUGATION. 


§  51 

time,  if  in  the  nominative,  or  in  the  accusative  before  the  in¬ 
finitive  as  the  subject  of  discourse ;  and  if  in  the  oblique 
cases,  as  the  object  of  some  action  or  relation.  They  are 
construed  in  all  respects  as  nouns,  and  also  govern  the  case 
of  their  verbs,  §  147. 

In  meaning  and  use,  the  gerund  resembles  the  English  pre¬ 
sent  participle,  used  as  a  noun.  See  Eng.  Gr.  §  30.  7,  and 
the  Greek  infinitive  with  the  article  prefixed.  See  Gr.  Gr. 
$  173. 

Supines  are  defective  verbal  nouns  of  the  fourth  declen¬ 
sion,  having  only  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular. 

The  supine  in  -um  has  an  active  signification  and  governs 
the  case  of  the  verb,  §  116.  Exp. 

The  supine  in  -u  has  usually  a  passive  signification,  and 
governs  no  case. 


$  51.  CONJUGATION  OF  REGULAR  VERBS. 

1.  Regular  verbs  are  those  in  which  the  secondary  parts 
are  formed  from  the  primary,  according  to  certain  rules,  §  52. 

2.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  combination 
and  arrangement  of  its  several  voices ,  moods ,  tenses ,  numbers 
and  persons. 

3.  Of  regular  verbs  in  Latin,  there  are  four  conjugations, 
called  the  First ,  Seco?id,  Third  and  Fourth.  These  are 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  vowel  before  -re,  in  the 
present  infinitive  active ;  thus, 

The  First  conjugation  has  a  long  before  -re  of  the  infiniti\e. 

The  Second  has  e  long  before  -re  of  the  infinitive. 

The  Third  has  e  short  before -re  of  the  infinitive. 

The  Fourth  has  l  long  before  -re  of  the  infinitive. 

Exc.  Dare  and  its  compounds  of  the  first  conjugation  have 
a  short. 

4.  The  primary  tenses  or  parts  of  the  verb  from  which 
all  the  other  parts  are  formed,  are  four,  namely,  -o  of  the 
present  indicative,  -re  of  the  present  infinitive,  -i  of  the  per¬ 
fect  indicative,  and  -um  of  the  supine.  The  giving  of  these 


VERBS. - CONJUGATION. 


101 


§  51 


T^arts  in  the  order  just  mentioned  is  called  conjugating  the 
verb;  thus. 


ls£  Coni. 
2  d 
3d 
4th 


Pres .  hid. 
Amo, 
Moneo, 
Rego, 
Audio, 


Pres.  Inf. 
amare, 
monere, 
regere, 
audlre, 


Perf.  Ind. 
amavi, 
monui, 
rexi, 
audlvi, 


ls£  Supine. 
amS.tum. 
monitum. 
rectum, 
auditum. 


Tlie  manner  of  conjugating  each  verb  being  accurately  as¬ 
certained  from  the  Dictionary,  the  other  tenses  may  be  formed 
with  certainty  by  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  next  section.* 

*  Though  general  rules  may  be,  and  have  been  laid  down  to  form 
She  primary  tenses,  from  the  general  root  or  stem  of  the  verb,  yet 
there  is  such  a  multitude  of  exceptions  in  the  third  conjugation,  (and 
some  in  the  others  also,)  which  it  is  impossible  to  bring  under  any  rule, 
that  it  will  be  found  indispensable,  after  all,  to  learn  the  conjugation 
of  each  verb  from  the  dictionary  or  from  the  table  of  irregular  con¬ 
jugations.  §  81.  For  this  reason  they  are  here  omitted  in  the  text  as 
useless  for  any  practical  purpose.  The  principle  methods  proposed 
are  in  substance  the  two  following: 

First.  The  general  root  or  stem  that  runs  through  the  whole  verb, 
consists  of  the  letters  preceding  the  infinitive  terminations,  -are.  -ere, 
ire,  -ire. 

To  form  the  primary  tenses  there  is  added  to  the  general  root  as 


follows  : 

Pr.  Ind.  Pr.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

lsf.  Supine. 

In  the  1st.  Conj. 

-o, 

-are, 

-avi, 

-a  turn. 

“  2d.  “ 

-eo, 

-ere, 

-ui, 

-itum. 

“  3d.  “ 

-o,  &-Io,  -ere, 

-i  &  -si, 

-turn,  &.  -sum. 

4th.  11 

-lo, 

-ire, 

-ivi, 

-itum. 

In  the  Perfect  of  the  third  Conjugation  observe, 

1.  If  the  root  of  the  verb  ends  with  a  vowel,  the  termination  added 
><j  -t;  as  acuo,  root  acu,  perfect  acui. 


2.  If  the  root  of  the  verb  ends  with  a  consonant,  the  usual  termi¬ 
nation  is  -si,  which  in  uniting  with  the  root  causes,  the  following 
changes,  viz. 

1st.  If  the  letter  preceding  -si  be  c,  g.  h ,  or  qu ,  it  unites  with  the  s 
and  forms  x;  as,  duco  ( duc-si )  duxi  ;fingo,  ( fing-si ,)  jinxi ; 
traho,  ( trah-si )  traxi  ;  coquo ,  ( coqu-si )  coxi. 

2d.  The  letter  b  before  -si  is  changed  into  p  ;  as,  scribo,  scripsi. 

3d.  When  d  precedes  -si,  either  the  d  or  the  s  is  rejected  ;  as,  de- 
fendo,  defendi  ;  claudo ,  clausi. 

4th.  The  s  is  dropped  in  many  verbs  which  cannot  be  brought  un¬ 
der  any  definite  rule  ;  as,  lego ,  legi ;  emo,  end. 

In  the  Supine  of  the  third  Conjugation  observe, 

When  the  root  of  the  verb  ends  in  a  vowel  the  supine  adds  - turn 
and  lengthens  the  vowel  preceding  it ;  as.  acuo,  acutum. 

9* 


THE  VEKB. - FORMATION  OF  TENSES. 


102 


§  52.  FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES  IN  THE  AO- 

TIVE  VOICE. 

I.  Indicative  Mood. 

1.  The  Present  is  a  primary  tense. 

2.  The  Imperfect  is  formed  from  the  present  by  changing, 
in  the  1st  Conj.  -o  into  -dbavi;  as,  am-o,  am-dbam , 


in  the  2d 


-eo  into  -ebam;  as,  mon-eo ,  mon-ebam , 


in  the  3d  and  4th  -o  into  - ebam ;  as 


\: 


eg-o ,  reg-ebam , 
audi-o,  audi-ebam. 


2.  When  the  root  ends  with  a  consonant,  the  supine  adds  -turn, 
sometimes  -sum.  In  uniting  with  the  root,  the  following  changes 
for  the  sake  of  euphony  take  place  ;  viz. 

1st.  The  letter  b,  before  -turn  is  changed  into  p ;  as  scribo,  scriptum. 

2d.  The  letters  g,  h ,  and  qu,  before  -turn  are  changed  into  c  ;  as, 
rego.  rectum;  traho,  tr actum ;  coquo,  coctum. 

3d.  The  letter  g  before  -sum  when  a  vowel  precedes,  unites  with  the 
sand  forms  x;  as,  figo,  ( fig-sum )  Jixum  ;  when  r  precedes, 
the  g  is  rejected ;  as,  tergo,  tersum. 

4th.  The  letter  d  before  -sum  is  rejected  as  defendo ,  de/ensum. 

Secondly.  The  general  root  being  found  as  before  ;  then,  to  form 
the  second  root  in  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conjugations,  (i.  e.  the 
root  of  the  perfect  tense,)  add  -av  for  the  first,  -u  for  the  second, 
and  -iv  for  the  fourth  ;  as,  am,  amav ;  mon,  monu  ;  aud,  audiv. 

To  form  the  third  root  (i.  e.  the  root  of  the  supine,)  in  the  same 
conjugations,  add  to  the  general  root  the  syllables  - atu ,  -itu,  and 
-itu ;  as,  am,  amatu  ;  mon  monitu ;  aud ,  auditu. 

The  three  roots  being  thus  found,  the  primary  tenses  are  formed  as 
follows  ;  viz: 

1.  From  the  first  root  the  present  indicative  is  formed, 

in  the  1st  conjugation  by  adding  - o ,  as,  am,  am-o. 

in  the  2d  u  by  adding  -eo,  as,  mon,  mon-eo. 

in  the  3d  “  by  adding  -o,or-zo,  as,  reg ,  reg-o. 

in  the  4th  “  by  adding  -io,  as,  aud,  aud-io. 

2.  From  the  same  root  the  present  infinitive  is  formed, 

in  the  1st  conjugation  by  adding  -are,  as,  am,  am-are. 
in  the  2d  “  by  adding  -ere,  as,  mon,  mon-ere 

in  the  3d  u  by  adding  -ire,  as,  reg,  reg-Zre. 

in  the  4th  “  by  adding  -ire,  as,  aud,  aud-ire. 

3.  From  the  second  root  in  all  conjugations,  the  perfect  is  formed 
by  adding  i;  as,  amav-i;  monu-i,  audiv-i. 

4.  From  the  third  root  in  all  conjugations,  the  first  supine  is  formed 
by  adding?n;  as,  amatu-m,  monitu-m,  &c. 

The  third  conjugation  is  so  irregular  in  the  formation  of  its  roots 
that  no  rules  are  attempted. 

The  first  of  these  methods  is  substantially  that  offered  in  the  Gram 
mar  of  Zumpt.  The  second  is  the  plan  of  Andrews  and  Stoddart, 
which  they  carry  out  by  applying  it  to  all  the  tenses  as  well  as  to  the 
primary. 


THE  VERB. - FORMATION  OF  TENSES. 


103 


§  52 

3.  The  Perfect  is  a  primary  tense. 

4.  The  Pluperfect  in  all  conjugations  is  formed  from  the 
perfect,  by  changing  -i  into  - eram ;  as,  amdv-i ,  amav-eram  ; 
monu-i ,  monu-eram ,  &c. 

5.  The  Future  is  formed  from  the  present  by  changing — 

in  the  1st  conjugaton-o  into  -dbo;  as,  am-o ,  am-dbo. 
in  the  2d,  -eo  into  - ebo ;  as,  mo?i-eo,  mon-ebo . 

in  the  3d  and  4th,  -o  into  -am;  as,  j  7e§  f  reg-am . 

6.  The  Future- perfect  in  all  conjugations  is  formed  from 
the  perfect,  by  changing  -i  into  -Iro;  as,  amav-i ,  amav-ero; 
monu-i ,  monu-ero ,  &c. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  Mood. 

7.  The  Present  Subjunctive  is  formed  from  the  present 
indicative,  by  changing, — in  the  first  conjugation,  -o  into  -em; 
as,  am-o,  am-em;  in  the  second,  third  and  fourth,  by  changing 
-o  into  -am;  as,  moiie-o ,  mone-am;  reg-o ,  reg-am;  audi-o , 
audi-am . 

8.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  all  conjugations  is  form¬ 
ed  from  the  present  infinitive  by  adding  w;  as,  amdre ,  amdrem; 
monere ,  monerem ,  regere,  regerem ,  &c. 

9.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  formed  from  the  perfect 
indicative  by  changing  -z  into  -erim ;  as,  amdv-i ,  amdv-erim; 
monu-i,  monu-erim,  &c. 

10.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  is  formed  from  the  perfect 
indicative  by  changing  -z  into  -issem;  as,  amdv-i,  amdv-issem, 
monu-i ,  monu-issem ,  &c. 

III.  The  Imperative  Mood. 

11.  The  Present  Imperative  is  formed  from  the  present 
infinitive  by  taking  away  -re;  as,  amdre ,  ama ;  monere ,  mo- 
ne;  regere ,  rege;  audire,  audi. 

IV.  The  Infinitive  Mood. 

12.  The  Present  Infinitive  is  a  primary  tense. 

13.  The  Perfect  Infinitive,  is  formed  from  the  perfect 
indicative  by  changing  -i  into,  -isse;  as,  amdv-i ,  amav-isse • 
monu-i ,  monu-isse ,  &c. 


104 


THE  VERB. - FORMATION  OF  TENSES. 


§63 


14.  The  Future  Infinitive  is  a  compound  tense,  made  up 
of  esse  or  fuisse ,  and  the  future  participle  in  -rus;  as,  esse  or 
fuisse  amaturus,-a^-um;  esse  or  fuisse  mom  turns,- a,-um,  &c 


V.  Participles ,  Gerunds  and  Supines. 

15.  The  Present  Participle  is  formed  from  the  present  in¬ 
dicative  by  changing, 

-o  in  the  1st  Conjug.  into  -ans;  as,  am-o ,  am-ans. 

-eo  in  the  2d  “  into  - ens ;  as,  mon-eo,  mon-ens. 

-o  in  the  3d  and  4tli  into  -ens;  as,  \  re*7  ?1  re^j  ?nS) 

16.  The  Future  Participle  is  formed  from  the  former  su¬ 

pine  by  changing  -um  into  -Urus;  as,  amat-um ,  amat-Urus; 
morat-um ,  momt-Urus ,  & c. 


17  The  Gerund  is  formed  from  the  present  indicative  by 
changing, 

-o  in  the  1st  Conj.  into  -andum;  as,  am-o ,  am-andum. 
-eo  in  the  2d  u  into  -endum;  as,  mon-eo ,  mon-endum . 

reg-o ,  r  eg-  endum, 
audi-o,  audi-endum. 

18.  The  Former  Supine  is  a  primary  part  of  the  verb. 

19.  The  Latter  Supine  is  formed  from  the  former  by  drop¬ 
ping  m;  as,  amdtum ,  amatu ;  monitum ,  rnonitu,  &c. 


o  in  the  3d  and  4th  into  -endum;  as, 


§  53.  FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES  IN  THE  PAS¬ 
SIVE  VOICE. 

1.  In  the  Indicative  mood,  the  Present  tense  is  formed 
from  the  present  active  by  adding  r  ;  as,  amo ,  amor  ;  moneo , 
moneor ,  &c.  In  the  imperfect  and  future  from  the  same  tenses 
in  the  active  voice,  by  changing  m  into  r ;  as,  amabam , 
arndbar ; — or  adding  r  to  bo  ;  as,  monebo,  monebor ,  &c. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive  mood,  the  Present  and  Imperfect  are 
formed  from  the  same  tenses  in  the  active,  by  changing  m 
into  r ;  as,  amem ,  amcr ;  moneam ,  monear ,  &c. 

3.  The  Perfect ,  Pluperfect ,  and  Future-perfect  Indica¬ 
tive ,  and  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  are  compound 


J  54 


THE  VERB. - SUM. 


105 


tenses,  made  up  of  the  perfect  participle  passive,  and  the  verb 
sum,  as  an  auxiliary,  as  exhibited  in  the  paradigm  of  these 
tenses. 

4.  The  Imperative  in  all  verbs  is  formed  by  adding  -re  to 
the  imperative  active;  as,  amd,  amare;  mone ,  monere ,  &c. 
Hence,  the  imperative  passive  is  like  the  present  infinitive 
active. 

5.  The  Present  Infinitive  is  formed  from  the  present  infini¬ 
tive  active  by  changing  -re  in  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  con¬ 
jugations,  into  -ri;  as,  amd -re ,  amd-ri ;  mone-re ,  mone-ri  ; 
audi-re,  audi-ri  ; and  by  changing  -ere  in  the  third  into  -i  ; 
as,  reg-ere ,  reg-i.  But  arcesso  has  arcessiri. 

The  Perfect  infinitive  is  a  compound  tense,  made  up  of 
the  perfect  participle, and  esse  or  fuisse  prefixed;  as,  esse  or 
fuisse  amdtus ,  - a ,  -um,  &c. 

The  Future  Infinitive  is  also  a  compound  tense,  made  up 
of  the  former  supine  and  iri ,  the  present  infinitive  passive 
of  eo ;  as,  amd turn  iri ;  moiutum  iri,  &c. 

6.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  formed  from  the  former  supine 
by  changing  -urn  into  -us;  &s,amdt-um,  amat-us;  momt-um, 
monit-us ,  & c. 

The  Future  Participle  is  formed  as  the  active  gerund  by 
putting  -dus  instead  of  -dum  ;  as,  Gerund,  amandum ,  Part. 
amandus;  Gerund,  monendum ,  Part,  monendus,  &c. 


§  54.  THE  IRREGULAR  VERB  SUM  * 

This  verb  is  sometimes  called  a  substantive  verb,  as  it  de¬ 
notes  being,  or  simple  existence;  as,  sum,  “I  am,”  “I  ex¬ 
ist.”  Sometimes  it  is  called  auxiliary ,  because  it  is  used 
as  an  auxiliary  verb  in  the  conjugation  cF  the  passive  voice. 
It  is  conjugated  thus, 


*  This  verb  being  irregular,  properly  belongs  to  §  83.  but  is  insert¬ 
ed  here  because,  as  an  auxiliary,  it  is  much  used  in  the  inflection  of 
regular  verbs. 


106 


Pres.  Ind. 
Sum, 


THE  VERB. - SUM. 


§  64 


Pres.  Inf. 
esse, 


Perf  Ind. 

fui. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  am. 


Sing.  1.  Ego  Sum,* 

I  am , 

2.  Tu  Es, 

Thou f  art ,  or  you  are, 

3.  Ille  Est, 

He  is; 

Plur.  1.  Nos  Sumus, 

We  are , 

2.  Vos  Estis, 

Ye,  or  you  are, 

3.  Illi  Sunt, 

They  are. 

Imperfect,  was. 

Si?ig.  1.  Eram, 

I  was, 

2.  Eras, 

Thou  wast,  or  you  were. 

3.  Erat, 

He  was ; 

Plur.  1.  Eramus, 

We  were , 

2.  Eratis, 

Ye,  or  you  were , 

3.  Erant, 

They  were. 

Perfect  Definite,  have  been;  Indefinite,  was. 

Sing.  1.  Fui, 

I  have  been, 

2.  Fuisti, 

Thou  hast  been , 

3.  Fuit, 

He  has  been  ; 

Plur.  1.  Fuimus, 

We  have  been , 

2.  Fuistis, 

Ye  have  been , 

3.  Fuerunt,  or  fuere, 

They  have  been. 

Pluperfect,  had  been. 

Sing.  1.  Fueram, 

I  had  been , 

2.  Fueras, 

Thou  hadst  been , 

3.  Fuerat, 

He  had  been; 

Plur.  1.  Fueramus, 

We  had  been , 

2.  Fueratis, 

Ye  had  been, 

3.  Fu erant, 

They  had  been. 

*  In  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and  Imperative  mood,  every  part 
of  the  verb  must  have  its  Nominative  expressed  or  understood.  See 
§  48.  3.  The  nominatives,  Ego,  tu ,  ille,  of  the  singular,  and  Nos, 
vos,  illi,  of  the  plural,  are  here  prefixed  in  the  present  tense,  to  show 
their  place  and  their  use;  but  in  the  following  tenses,  and  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  conjugations  they  are  omitted.  Still  they  are  to  he  regarded 
as  understood,  and  may  be  supplied  at  pleasure. 

f  See  §  28.  Note.  In  the  plural,  “  you”  is  much  more  common 
than  “  ye  ”  which  is  now  seldom  used. 


§64 


THE  VERB. - SUM. 


107 


Sing 


Future,  shall, or  will. 

1 .  Ero,  I  shall ,  or  will  he , 

2.  Eris,  Thou  shalt, or  wilt  be, 

3.  Erit,  He  shall,  or  will  be  ; 

Plur.  1.  Erimus,  We  shall ,  or  will  be, 

2.  Eritis,  Ye  shall ,  or  will  be, 

3.  Erunt,  They  shall ,  or  will  be. 

Future-perfect,  shall,  or  will  have  been. 
Sing.  1.  Fuero,  I  shall,  or  will  have  been, 


2.  Fueris, 

3.  Fuerit, 

Plur.  1.  Fuerimus, 

2.  Fueritis, 

3.  Fuerint, 


Thou  shalt,  or  ivilt  have  been, 
He  shall,  or  will  have  been  ; 

We  shall,  or  will  have  been , 
Ye  shall,  or  will  have  been , 
They  shall,  or  will  have  been * 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

3. 


2. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  may,  or  can. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


1. 

2. 


Sim, 

I  may  or  can  be, 

Sis, 

Thou  may st,  or  canstbe, 

Sit, 

He  may  or  can  be; 

Slmus, 

We  may  or  can  be. 

Sltis, 

Ye  may  or  can  be. 

Sint, 

They  may  or  can  be. 

PERFECT 

might,  could,  would ,  or  should. 

Essem, 

I  might,  could,  &c.  be, 

Esses, 

Thoumightst ,  &c.  be, 

Esset, 

He  might ,  &c.  be  ; 

Essemus, 

We  might,  & c.  be. 

Essetis, 

Ye  might.  Sic.  be, 

Essent, 

They  might,  & c.  be. 

Perfect,  may  have. 

Fuerim, 

I  may  have  been, 

Fueris, 

Thou  mayst  have  been , 

Fuerit, 

He  may  have  been ; 

Fuerimus 

,  We  may  have  been, 

Fueritis, 

Ye  may  have  been, 

Fuerint, 

They  may  have  been. 

103 


THE  VERB - SUM. 


§64 


Pl  uperfect,  might ,  could ,  looidd  or  should  have. 


Sing.  1.  Fuissem, 

2.  Fuisses, 

3.  Fuisset, 

Plur.  1.  Fuissemus, 

2.  Fuissetis, 

3.  Fuissent, 


I  might ,  &c.  A<zre  Seen, 
Thou  mightst ,  &lc.  Ao.pe  Seen, 
He  might ,  &c.  have  been; 

We  viight ,  &c.  havebeeny 
Ye  might ,  &c.  Anre  Seen, 
They  might ,  &c.  7i«ee  Seen. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Sing.  2.  Es,  or  Esto, 

3.  Esto, 

Plur.  2.  Este,  or  estote, 
3.  Sunto, 


j5e  £Ao?£, 

Le£  him  be; 

Be  ye , 

Let  them  be. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Esse,  To  be,  §  47,  11. 

Perf.  Fuisse,  To  Anre  been. 

Fut.  Esse  futurus,  -a,  -um,  To  be  about  to  be. 

F.Perf.  Fu  isse  futurus, -a, -um,  To  have  been  about  to  be. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Future.  Futurus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  be. 


Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F - perf . 


Indicative. 

Subjunc. 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 

Part. 

sum. 

sim. 

es  or  esto. 

esse. 

eram. 

essem. 

fui. 

fuerim. 

fuisse. 

fueram. 

fuissem. 

ero. 

esse  futurus. 

futurus 

fuero. 

1 

fuisse  futurus. 

Obs.  1.  The  compounds  of  sum;  namely,  adsum ,  absumy 
desum ,  insum ,  intersum ,  obsum ,  prcesum ,  subsum ,  super¬ 
sum. ,  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb ;  but  insum ,  and 
subsum  want  the  perfect,  and  the  tenses  formed  from  it. 
Prosum ,  and  possum ,  from  pota's  and  snm  are  very  irregular, 
§  83.  1.  2. 


OSs.  2.  Instead  of  Essem ,  fdrem  is  sometimes  used,  and 
also  /<5re,  instead  of  fuisse . 

Ofo.  3.  The  participle  ens  is  not  in  use,  but  appears  in 
two  compounds,  absens ,  and  prcesens. 


THE  VERB. 


SUM. 


109 


$55 


Note. — The  great  irregularity  of  this  verb  arises  from  the  different 
parts  being  formed  from  different  themes  ;  viz.  the  parts  beginning 
with  e  from  eo,  the  root  of  the  Greek  sq xf,  and  those  beginning  witft 
f  from  fiio  the  same  as  the  Greek  ep'jw. 


§  55.  EXERCISES  ON  SUM  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS. 

1.  Give  the  designation  of  the  verb, — conjugate  it, — give  the  tense , 
mood,  person,  number,  and  translation  of  the  following  words,  always 
observing  the  same  order;  thus, — Sum,  Verb, intran.,  irregular;  found 
in  the  present,  indicative,  first  person,  singular,  “  I  am.” — Fuit,  V. 
neut.  irr.  found  in  the  perf.  ind.  3d  pers.  sing.;  definite,  “  he  has 
been,”  indefinite  a  he  was.”* 

Est,  erat,  erit,  fueram,  fuerim,  fuero,  sit,  esset,  fuisti,  fui- 
mus,  fuerunt,  fuere,  erunt,  sint,  sumus,  erant,  essent,  fuis- 
sent,  esse,  esto,  sunto,  fuisse,  es,  eras,  fueras,  fuistis,  futu- 
rus  esse,  futurus,  sint,  &c.  ad  libitum. 

2.  Translate  the  following  English  words  into  Latin,  naming  the 
part  of  the  verb  used;  thus, — “  I  will  be,”  Zro,  in  the  future  ind. 
1st  pers.  sing.  The  Latin  word  for  I,  thou ,  he,  we,  you,  they,  to  be 
omitted  or  inserted  at  pleasure. f 

We  are,  they  were,  you  have  been,  thou  hast  been,  they 
will  be,  he  may  be,  I  shall  have  been,  to  be,  be  thou,  let  them 
be,  about  to  be,  to  be  about  to  be,  we  should  be,  we  should 
have  been,  I  may  have  been,  they  will  have  been,  they  may 
have  been,  they  have  been,  you  were,  thou  wast,  he  is,  they 
are,  &c.  ad  libitum. 


*  In  these  and  all  following  exercises  on  the  verb,  it  will  be  of 
great  importance,  in  order  to  form  habits  of  accuracy,  and  as  a  pre¬ 
paration  for  future  exercises  in  translating  and  parsing,  to  require 
the  pupil  in  this  manner  to  state  every  thing  belonging  to  a  verb  in 
the  order  here  indicated,  or  in  any  other  the  teacher  may  direct,  al¬ 
ways,  however,  observing  the  same.  And  also  for  the  saving  of 
time  and  unnecessary  labor,  to  state  them  in  the  fewest  words  possi¬ 
ble,  and  without  waiting  to  have  every  word  drawn  from  him  by 
questions. 

f  N.  B.  It  will  be  a  profitable  exercise  to  require  each  pupil  to 
write  out  the  Latin  for  these  and  other  English  words  that  may  be 
dictated, — carefully  to  mark  the  quantity  of  long  and  short  vowels 
and  to  pronounce  them  correctly  after  they  are  written. 

10 


110 


THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


§56 


§  56.  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

Amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum,  To  love. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  love,  do  love,  am  loving,  §  44.  I. 


Sing.  1.  Am-o, 

2.  Am-as, 

3.  Am-at, 

Plur.  1.  Am-amus, 

2.  Am-atis, 

3.  Am-ant, 


I  love ,  do  love,  am  loving , 

Thou  lovest,  dost  love ,  art  loving , 
He  loves ,  does  love ,  is  loving ; 

We  love,  do  love ,  are  loving , 

Ye  or  you  love ,  do  love ,  are  loving , 
They  love ,  do  love,  are  loving. 


Imperfect  loved,  did  love,  teas  loving ,  §  44.  II. 


S.  1 .  Am-abam, 

2.  Am-abas, 

3.  Am-abat, 

P.  1.  Am-abamus, 

2.  Am-abatis, 

3.  Am-abant 


J  loved,  did  love ,  tms  loving , 
Thoulovedst,  didst  love,  wast  loving , 
He  loved ,  did  love ,  zoos  loving ; 

We  loved ,  did  love ,  were  loving , 

Ye  loved,  did  love ,  were  loving , 
They  loved,  did  love,  were  loving . 


Perfect  Def.  /zore  loved;  Indef.  loved,  did  love ,  §  44.  III. 


S.  1.  Am-avi, 

2.  Am-avisti, 
C.  Am-avit, 


/  have  loved,  loved ,  did  love , 

Thou  hast  loved ,  lovedst, ,  didst  love , 
He  has  loved,  loved ,  did  love; 


P.  1.  Am-avimus, 

2.  Am-avistis, 

3.  Am-averunt,  or 

-avere, 


We  have  loved ,  loved,  did  love , 
Ye  have  loved ,  loved,  did  love , 

They  have  loved,  loved,  did  love. 


Pluperfect,  had  loved.  §  44.  IV. 


S.  1.  Am-averam, 

2.  Am-averas, 

3.  Am-averat, 

P.  1.  Am-averamus, 

2.  Am-averatis, 

3.  Am-averant, 


I  had  loved , 

Thou  hadst  loved , 
He  had  loved; 

We  had  loved , 

Ye  had  loved , 
They  had  loved. 


THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


Ill 


8  56 


Future,  shall ,  or  will  love,  $  44.  V. 


5.  1.  Am-abo, 

2.  Am-abis, 

3.  Am-abit, 

P.  1.  Am-abimus, 

2.  Am-abitis, 

3.  Am-abunt, 


I  shall,  or  will  love , 
Thou  shall,  or  wilt  love , 
He  shall ,  or  will  love ; 

We  shall ,  or  will  love , 
Ye  s^aZZ,  or  zex'ZZ  love. 
They  shall  or  will  love . 


Future-perfect,  shall, or  will  have  loved ,  §  44.  VI. 


S .  1.  Am-avero, 

2.  Am-averis, 

3.  Am-averit, 

P.  1.  Am-avenmus, 

2.  Am-averitis, 

3.  Am-averint, 


I  shall,  or  will  have  loved , 
Thou  shall,  or  will  have  loved, 
He  shall,  or  will  have  loved ; 

We  shall,  or  will  have  loved. 
Ye  shall,  or  ivill  have  loved. 
They  shall,  or  will  have  loved . 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Present  tense,  may ,  or  can  love,  §  45.  I. 


S.  1.  Am-em, 

I  may ,  or  can  love, 

2.  Am-es, 

Thou  mayest ,  or  canst  love , 

3.  Am-et, 

He  may,  or  can  love; 

P.  1.  Am- emus, 

We  may,  or  can  love, 

2.  Am-etis, 

Ye  may,  or  can  love, 

3.  Am-ent, 

They  may,  or  can  love . 

Imperfect,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love,  §  45.  II. 

S.  1.  Am-arem, 

I  might,  &c.  love, 

2.  Am-ares, 

Thoumightst ,  Ac.  love. 

3.  Am  aret, 

He  might,  &c.  love  ; 

P.  1.  Am-aremus, 

We  might,  &c.  love, 

2.  Am-aretis, 

Ye  might,  &c.  love, 

3.  Am-arent, 

They  might,  &c.  love. 

Perfect, 

may  have  loved,  §  45.  III. 

S.  1.  Am-averim, 

I  may  have  loved, 

2.  Am-averis, 

Thou  mayest  have  loved. 

3.  Am-averit, 

He  may  have  loved  ; 

P.  1.  Am-averimus, 

We  may  have  loved. 

2.  Am-averitis, 

Ye  may  have  loved, 

3.  Am-av«rint, 

They  may  have  loved. 

THE  VERB. — FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


112 


§56 


Pluperfect,  might ,  could,  ivould,  or  should  have,  §  45.  IV. 


&.  1.  Am-avissem, 

2.  Am-avisses, 

3.  Am-avisset, 

P.  1.  Am-avissemus, 

2.  Am-avissetis, 

3.  Am-avissent, 


I  might ,  &c.  have  loved , 

Thou  might st,  &c.  have  loved , 
ife  might ,  &c.  ^ore  loved; 
Wemight, &c.  Aore  loved. 

Ye  might ,  &c.  have  loved , 
They  might,  &c.  have  loved. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD,  §  42. 

Sing.  2.  Ara-a,  or  am-ato,  Lore  ^Aow, 

3.  Am-ato,  Let  him  love; 

Plur,  2.  Am-ate,  or  am-atote,  Lore  ?/e, 

3.  Am-anto.  Let  them  love . 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Am-are,  To  love,  §47,11. 

Perf.  Am-avisse,  To  have  loved , 

F ut.  Esse  am-aturus,  -a,  -um,  To  be  about  to  love , 

F-perf.  F uisse  am-aturus,  -a,  -um,  To  have  been  about  to  love . 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Am-ans,  Loving. 

Fut.  Am-aturus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  love . 

GERUNDS. 


Nom .  Am-andum, 

(rera.  Am-andi, 

LoA  Am-ando, 

Acc.  Am-andum, 

Abl.  Am-ando, 

SUPINES. 

Former,  Am-atum, 

Latter,  Am-atu, 


Loving, 

Of  loving , 

To  loving , 

Loving , 

With,from,&ic .  loving 
To  love. 

To  be  loved,  to  love . 


Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 

F.  perf. 

Cre-o, 

Voc-o, 

Dom-o, 


Indicative. 

Amo, 

Amabam, 

Amavi, 

AmavSram, 

Amabo, 

Amavero. 


Subjunctive.  Imp. 
Araem,  Ama 
Amarem, 
Amaverim, 
Amavissem 


Esse  amaturus. 
Fuisse  amaturus 

After  the  same  manner  inflect, 


Infinitive. 

Amare, 

Amavisse, 


Participle 

Amans, 


Amaturus. 


cre-are,  cre-avi, 
voc-are,  voc-avi, 
dom-are,  dom-ui, 


cre-atum,  To  create . 

voc-atum,  To  call . 

dom-itum,  To  tawe. 


§  57  THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION.  na 

§  57.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  FIRST  CONJUGATION, 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation  of  the  verb ,  conjugate  it,  give  ihetense‘~ 
mood , — voice, — person, — number  and  translation  of  the  following 
words,  always  observing  the  same  erder;  thus, — Amo,  Verb,  trans., 
first,  amo,  amdre,  amdvi,  amdtum.  It  is  found  in  the  present,  ind.  ac¬ 
tive;  first  person  singular,  “ 1  love.”  “  I  do  love,”  “  I  am  loving.” 

Amabat,  amaverat,  amet,  amaveritis,  amabunt,  creavimus, 
ereaverat,  domuerat,  domuisset,  amavero,  domuero,  vocave- 
lim,  vocaj  vocare,  doma,  creavisse,  domuisse,  amaturus,  do- 
miturus,  amans,  amandum,  amatu,  domitum,  domabam,  doma- 
bo, — creat,  crearet,  amaret,  amavisti,  amavere,  domuistis, 
amato,  amando,  amaverunt,  creare,  vocaverunt,  voc&verint, 
vocabunt,  vocaretis,  domabitis,  &c.  &c.  ad  libitum. 

2.  Translate  the  following  English  words  into  Latin,  giving  the 
part  of  the  verb  used;  thus, — 11 1  was  loving,”  amabam,  in  the  im¬ 
perfect  indicative  act.  first  person  singular. 

He  will  love,  I  might  love,  I  had  loved,  I  might  have  lov¬ 
ed,  he  shall  love,  I  may  love,  he  created,  I  called,  I  may  have 
called,  he  will  tame,  he  has  tamed,  he  would  have  tamed,  love 
thou,  let  them  love,  to  love,  about  to  love,  of  loving,  to  have 
loved,  they  were  loving,  they  have  loved,  thou  hast  creat¬ 
ed,  thou  hast  tamed,  &c.  ad  libitum. 

3.  The  Infinitive  with  a  subject.  The  infinitive  after  another  verb, 
and  with  an  accusative  before  it  as  its  subject,  is  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish  in  the  indicative  or  potential  mood  ;  and  the  accusative  in  Latin 
is  made  the  nominative  in  English ;  as  dicit  me  amdre,  u  he  says  that 
I  love.”  The  accusatives  are  thus  translated  ; 

me,  that  I  ;  nos,  that  we  ;  hominem,  that  the  man. 

te,  that  thou  ;  vos ,  that  you  ;  homines,  that  the  men. 

ilium,  that  he;  illos,  that  they;  feminas,  that  the  women. 

Infinitives  after  verbs  of  the  present,  past  and  future  tenses,  are 
rendered  as  in  the  examples,  §  47-  11  ;  or  according  to  the  following 
rules ;  viz. 

Rule  I.  When  the  preceding  verb  is  of  the  present  or  future  tense , 
the  present  infinitive  is  translated  as  the  present  indicative  ;  the  perfect 
infinitive  as  the  perfect  indicative  ;  and  the  future  infinitive  as  the  fu¬ 
ture  indicative,  §  47.  11.  Nos.  1.  4.  7.  also  3-  6.  9. 

Rule  II.  When  the  preceding  verb  is  in  past  time,  (i.  e.  in  the  im¬ 
perfect,  perfect ,  or  pluperfect  tense,)  the  present  infinitive  is  transit ► 

10* 


114 


THE  VERB. - FIBST  CONJUGATION. 


§  68 

ted  as  the  imperfect ,  or  perfect  indicative ;  the  perfect  infinitive  as  the 
pluperfect  indicative ;  and  the  f  uture  infinitive  as  the  imperfect  sub • 
junctive ,  §  47.  11.  Nos.  2,  5,  8. 

Rule  III.  The  Future  perfect  of  the  infinitive  with  a  subject  is  al¬ 
ways  translated  as  the  pluperfect  subjunctive ,  whatever  be  the  tense  of 
the  preceding  verb,  §  47.  11.  Nos.  10.  11.  12. 

4.  According  to  the  preceding  rules  and  the  examples  referred  to, 
translate  the  following  sentences  into  English — observing  that  dicit , 
“  he  says,”  is  present  time ;  dixit,  “  he  said/’  past ;  and  dicet,  “he 
will  say,”  future. 

Dicit  me  vocare, — te  amare, — nos  amavisse, — vos  amaturos 
esse, — nos  amaturos  fuisse,  illos  domare, — te  amaturum  esse. 

Dixit  me  vocare, — te  amare, — nos  amavisse — nos  amaturos 
esse, — nos  amaturos  fuisse, — vos  domare, — te  amaturum  esse. 

Dixit  nos  vocare,  dicet  ilium  creare,  dicit  te  creaturum 
esse,dixitse  amaturum, (§  47.  Note  1.)  dicit  illos  creatures, 
ilium  vocaturum,  vos  domituros  esse,  domituros  fuisse,  &c. 

5.  Translate  the  following  English  into  Latin,  taking  care  to  put 
the  participle  of  the  future  infinitive  in  the  same  gender,  number,  and 
case,  as  the  accusative  preceding  it. 

He  said  that  I  loved, — that  I  was  calling.  He  says  that 
they  will  tame, — that  I  would  have  created, — that  they  will 
call, — that  he  loves.  He  will  say  that  I  love, — that  I  have 
loved, — that  I  will  love.  He  said  that  I  had  called, — that 
they  would  have  called, — that  they  tamed, — that  they  would 
tame, — that  he  would  have  tamed,  &c. 


Pres .  Ind, 
Amor, 


§‘  68,  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

amari,  amatus,  To  be  loved • 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense 
S,  1.  Am-or, 

2.  Am-aris,  or  -are, 

3.  Am-atur , 

P.  1.  Am-amur, 

2.  Am-amini, 

3.  Am-antur. 


am  loved ,  §  44.  1.  6. 

I  am  loved , 
Thou  art  loved . 
He  is  loved  ; 

We  are  loved , 
Ye  are  loved , 
They  are  loved. 


THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION 


116 


§58 


Imperfect,  was  loved , 

S.  1.  Am-abar, 

2.  Am-abaris,  or  -abare, 

3.  Am-hbatur, 

P.  1.  Am-abamur, 

2.  Am-abamini, 

3.  Am-abantur, 


§  44.  II.  4. 

I  was  loved , 

Thou  wast  loved , 
He  iv as  loved; 

We  were  loved , 
Ye  were  loved , 
They  w-ere  loved . 


Perfect,  have  hecn  loved ,  zoyzs  loved,  am  loved ,  §  44.  III.  5. 


8.  1.  Am-atus*  sum,  or  fui, 

2.  Am-atus  es,  or  fuisti, 

3.  Am-atus  est,  or  fuit, 

P.  1.  Am-ati  sumus,  or  fuimus, 
2.  Am-ati  estis,  or  fuistis, 


I  have  been  loved ,  &c. 
Thou  hast  been  loved , 
He  has  been  loved; 

We  have  been  loved , 
Ye  have  been  loved , 


3.  Am-ati  sunt,  fuerunt,  or  fuere,  They  have  been  loved. 


Pluperfect,  had  been  loved ,  §  44.  IV.  2.  and  Note. 

S.  1.  Am-atus  cram,  or  fueram,  I  had  been  loved, 

2.  Am-atus  eras,  or  fueras,  T^ow  hadst  been  loved, 

3.  Am-atus  erat,  or  fuerat,  He  had  been  loved; 

P.  1.  Am-ati  erarnus,  or  fueramus,  We  had  been  loved , 

2.  Am-ati  eratis,  or  fueratis,  Ye  been  loved , 

3.  Am-ati  erant,  or  iuerant,  T^e?/  had  been  loved. 


F uture,  shall ,  or  be  loved. 


S.  1.  Am-abor, 

2.  Am-aberis,  or  -abere, 

3.  Am-abitur, 

P.  1.  Am-abimur, 

2.  Am-abimini, 

3.  Am-abuntur, 

Future-perfect,  shall, 

S.  1.  Am-atus  fuero,# 

2.  Am-atus  fueris, 

3.  Am-atus  fuerit, 

.  1.  Am-ati  fuenmus, 

2.  Am-ati  fueritis, 

3.  Am-ati  fuerint, 


I  shall,  or  will  be  loved , 
Thou  shalt,  or  ivilt  be  loved , 
He  shall,  or  will  be  loved; 

We  shall,  or  will  be  loved. 
Ye  shall,  or  ivill  be  loved. 
They  shall,  or  will  be  loved. 

or  will  have  been  loved. 

I  shall  have  been  loved, 

Thou,  ivilt  have  been  loved , 
He  will  have  been  loved; 

We  shall  have  been  loved , 

Ye  will  have  been  loved, 
They  will  have  been  loved . 


*  See  §  44.  III.  6.  Note.  Fui  and  fuisti ,  are  very  seldom  found  with 
the  Perfect  Participle.  Fro .  as  well  as  fuSro,  is  used  in  the  Future* 
Perfect. 


116 


THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


$5S 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  77iay,  or  can  be  loved . 


o.  1.  Am-er, 

2.  Am-eris,  or  -ere, 

3.  Am-etur, 

P.  1.  Am-emur, 

2.  Am-emini, 

3.  Am-entur. 

Imperfect,  might ,  could , 
S.  1.  Am-arer, 

2.  Am-areris,  or  -arere, 

3.  Am-aretur, 

P.  1.  Am-aremur, 

2.  Am-aremini, 

3.  Am-arentur. 

Perfect,  may 

S.  Am-atus  sim,  or  fuerim, 
Am-atus  sis,  or  fueris, 
Am-atus  sit,  or  fuerit, 

P.  Am-ati  slmus,  or  fuerimus 
Am-ati  sitis,  or  fueritis, 
Am-ati  sint,  or  fuerint. 


I  may ,  or  can  be  loved, 

Thou  mayest  or  canst  be  loved . 
He  may ,  or  can  be  loved  ; 

We  may,  or  can  be  loved , 

Ye  may,  or  can  be  loved, 

They  may ,  or  can  be  loved . 

would,  or  should  be  loved . 

I  might ,  &c.  be  loved , 

Thou  might st,  &c.  be  loved , 
He  might,  &c.  be  loved; 

We  might,  &c.  be  loved , 

Ye  might,  &c.  be  loved. 

They  might,  <fcc.  beloved . 

Aa^e  Z>ee?z  loved . 

7  may  have  been  loved , 

Thou  mayst  have  been  loved , 
i7e  may  have  been  loved; 

,  W e  may  have  been  loved , 

Ye  may  have  been  loved, 
They  may  have  been  loved. 


Pluperfect,  might ,  could ,  would,  or  should  have  been  loved. 

S.  Am-atus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  might  have  been  loved, 
Am-atus  esses,  or  fuisses,  T  hou  might  st  have  been  loved, 

Am-atus  esset,  or  fuisset,  He  might  have  been  loved; 

P.  Am-ati  essemus  or fuissemus,  We  might  have  been  loved, 
Am-ati  essetis,  or  fuissetis,  Ye  might  have  been  loved, 
Am-ati  essent,  or  fuissent.  They  might  have  been  loved . 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Si?ig.  2.  Am-are,or  ator, 
3.  Am-ator, 

Plur.  2.  Am-amini, 

3.  Am-antor, 


Be  thou  loved , 

Let  him  be  loved; 
Be  ye  loved, 

Let  them  be  loved • 


§59 


THE  VERB. - FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


117 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Am-ari,  To  be  loved.  §  47.  11. 

Perf.  Esse,  or  fuisse  am-atus,  To  have  been  loved. 

Fut.  Am-atum  iri.  To  be  about  to  be  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Perf.  Am-atus,  -a,  -um,  Loved ,  being  loved ,  having 

been  loved. 

Fut.  Am-andus,  -a,  -um.  To  be  loved ,  'proper ,  or  ne¬ 
cessary  to  be  loved. 

Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 

Pres.  Amor, 

Imp.  .Amabar, 

Perf.  Amatus  sum, 
Plup.  Amatus  eram, 
Fut.  Amabor, 

F.  P.  Amatus  fuero. 


Subjunctive. 

Imper. 

Infinitive. 

Amer, 

Amare. 

Amari. 

Amarer, 

Amatus  sim, 

Esse  or  fuisse 

Amatus  essem. 

amatus, 

Amatum  iri. 

Part. 

Amatus, 

Amandus. 


Creor, 

Vocor, 

Domor, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 

creari,  creatus,  To  be  created. 

vocari,  vocatus,  To  be  called. 


domari,  domitus, 


To  be  tamed. 


$  59.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation  of  the  verb ,  —conjugate  it, — give  the  tense, 
mood ,  voice,  person ,  number ,  and  translation  of  the  following  words , 
always  following  the  same  order ;  thus, — Amor.  Verb,  trans.,  first; 
Amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum , — found  in  the  present  ind.  passive,  first 
person  sing.  “  I  am  loved.” 

Amabatur,  amantur,  amatus  est,  amabitur,  amabar,  amare- 
tur,  amentur,  amatus  sim,  amatus  fuero,  amati  fuerunt,  amati 
essemus,  amabammi,  amaris,  amatus  esset,  amati  fuissent, 
amabuntur,  amantor,  amare,  amatus  esse,  amatus,  amatum 
iri,  amandus,  amemini,  amaremini,  amantur,  creatur,  creare- 
‘lir,  vocabitur,  domantur,  vocatus  sum  ;  &c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  English  words  into  Latin,  giving  the 
vart  of  the  verb  used;  thus,  ‘‘  I  sm  love:!,”  Amor. — in  the  pres 
ad.  pass,  first  person,  sing. 

He  is  loved,  they  are  loved,  I  have  been  loved,  they  were 


118 


THE  VERB - FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


§59 


created,  he  had  been  called,  they  will  be  tamed,  I  might  be 
loved,  they  may  have  been  loved,  to  be  loved,  to  have  been 
called,  I  had  been  called,  being  called,  they  are  tamed,  they 
have  been  tamed,  he  will  be  loved,  they  will  have  been 
loved,  they  may  be  called,  I  may  be  called,  he  might  have 
been  created,  they  will  be  loved,  &c. 

3.  Translate  the  following  sentences  into  English,  according  to  the 
rules ,  §  57.  3. 

J)icj  e’^m  amari,  illos  vocatos  esse,  me  vocatum  iri,  te 
amatum  iri,  me  creari,  eos  domari,  ilium  amatum.  fuisse,  nos 
domitos  esse,  nos  domitum  iri,  illos  amari,  illos  vocatum  iri, 

Dixit  eum  amare,  illos  vocatos  esse,  me  vocatum  iri,  te 
amatum  iri,  me  creari,  eos  domari,  ilium  amatum  fuisse,  nos 
domitos  esse,  nos  domitum  iri,  illos  amari,  illos  vocatum  iri, 
te  amari.  Dicet  eum  amari,  &c.  as  in  the  preceding. 

4.  Translate  the  following  English  into  Latin,  taking  care  that  the 
participle  of  the  perfect  infinitive  be  put  in  the  same  gender,  number 
and  case,  as  the  accusative  before  it. 

He  says  that  I  am  loved,  that  he  was  loved,  that  he  will 
be  called,  that  they  were  created,  that  we  were  tamed.  He 
said  that  I  was  called,  that  we  were  created,  that  they  had 
been  created.  He  will  say  that  I  was  loved,  that  I  will  be 
loved,  that  they  will  be  called,  that  you  are  called,  that  he 
will  be  called.  He  said  that  they  had  been  tamed.  &c. 


Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Active  and  Passive 

Voice. 

5.  Give  the  designation,  &c.  as  directed ,  No.  1.  Amabo, 
amarem,  amaretur,  amatus  sim,  amant,  vocatur,  crearentur, 
domantur,  domitum  iri,  creari,  amant,  amabuntur,  amarent, 
amavissent,  amaverat,  ametis,  amatis,  amabatis,  amaveris, 
ama,  amavisse,  amandum,  amatur,  vocatum  iri,  vocatus  es, 
vocati  erant,  vocatus  esset,  (dicit  se,  “  he  says  that  he,”) 
amaturum  esse,  ( dixit  se,  “he  said  that  he,”)  amare,  amari, 
{nos,  that  we,)  vocatos  esse,  amanto,  amabunt,  amavistis, 
amavere,  amaretis. 

Conjugate  the  following  verbs  like  Amo  ;  viz. 

Accuso,  I  accuse,  Certo,  I  strive,  Reparo,  I  repair , 

JEstxmo,  I  value,  Coglto,  I  think,  Rogo,  I  ask, 

Ambulo,  I  walk,  Festino,  I  hasten,  Servo,  I  keep , 

Curo,  I  care ,  Navigo,  I  sail ,  Vito,  I  shun. 


THE  VERB — SECOND  CONJUGATION, 


119 


$  60 


§  60.  SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  lnd.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  hid.  Supine. 

Moneo,  monere,  monui,  monitum,  To  advise • 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  I  advise ,  do  advise,  am  advising ,  §  44.  I. 


S.  1.  Mcn-eo, 

2.  Mon-es, 

3.  Mon-et, 

P.  1.  Mon-emus, 

2.  Mon-etis, 

3.  Mon-ent, 


I  advise,  do  advise ,  &c. 

Thou  advisest ,  dost  advise,  &c. 
He  advises,  does  advise,  &c ; 

We  advise,  do  advise ,  &c. 

Ye  advise,  do  advise ,  &c. 

They  advise ,  do  advise ,  &c. 


Imperfect,  advised,  did  advise,  was  advising,  §  44.  II. 


S.  1.  Mon-ebam, 

2.  Mon-ebas, 

3.  Mon-ebat, 

P.  1.  Mon-ebamus, 

2.  Mon-ebatis, 

3.  Mon-ebant, 


I  advised,  did  advise,  &c 
Thou  advisedst,  didst  advise ,  &c. 
He  advised,  did  advise,  &e  ; 

TUe  advised,  did  advise,  &c. 

Ye  advised,  did  advise ,  &c. 

They  advised,  did  advise ,  &c. 


Perfect,  Def.  A«eeG:^me6Z,Indef.  advised;  did  advise,  $  44.  III. 


S.  1.  Monu-i, 

2.  Monu-isti, 

3.  Monu-it, 

P.  1.  Monu-imus, 
2.  Monu-istis, 


I  have  advised,  &c. 
Thou  hast  advised,  &c. 
He  has  advised,  &c ; 

IF e  have  advised ,  &c. 
Ye  have  advised,  &c. 


3.  Monu-erunt,  or  -ere.  They  have  advised,  &c. 


Pluperfect,  had  advised,  §  44.  IV, 


S.  1.  Monu-eram, 

2.  Monu-eras, 

3.  Monu-erat, 

P.  1.  Monu-eramus, 

2.  Monu-eratis, 

3.  Monu  erant, 


I  had  advised, 

Thou,  hadst  advised , 
He  had  advised; 

We  had  advised , 

Ye  had  advised, 

They  had  advised . 


120 


THE  VERB - SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


§60 


F uture,  shall ,  or  will  advise , 


tS.  1.  Mon-ebo, 

2.  Mon-ebis, 

3.  Mon-ebit, 

P.  1.  Mon-ebimus, 

2.  Mon-ebitis, 

3.  Mon-ebunt, 


I  shall,  or  will  advise , 
Thou  shalt ,  or  zez'Z£  advise , 
He  shall ,  or  zez'ZZ  advise  ; 

We  shall ,  or  zez’ZZ  advise , 
Ye  sAzzZZ,  or  zez'ZZ  advise , 
They  shall ,  or  zez'ZZ  advise . 


Future-perfect,  shall,  or  will  have  advised ,  §  44.  V. 


S.  1*.  Monu-ero, 

2.  Monu-eris, 

3.  Monu-erit, 

P.  1.  Monu-erimus, 

2.  Monu-eritis, 

3.  Monu-erint, 


/  sA<zZZ,  or  zez'ZZ  Zzaz;e  advised , 
Thou  shalt ,  or  ze/Z/  A  are  advised , 
He  shall ,  or  zez’ZZ  Aazie  advised; 
We  shall ,  or  zez'ZZ  Zzare  advised , 
Ye  shall ,  or  zrz'ZZ  Zzare  advised , 
They  shall ,  or  zez'ZZ  have  advised . 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  zzzaz/  or  can  advise,  §  45.  I. 


S.  1.  Mon-eam, 

2.  Mon-eas, 

3.  Mon-eat, 

P.  1.  Mon-eamus, 

2.  Mon-eatis, 

3.  Mon-eant, 


J  may,  or  cazz  advise , 

TAozz  mayest ,  or  cazzsZ  advise , 
He  vnay,  or  cazz  advise; 

We  may ,  or  cazz  advise , 

Ye  may,  or  czzzz  advise, 

They  may ,  or  cazz  advise. 


Imperfect,  might ,  could,  would ,  or  should  advise ,  §  45.  II* 


5.  1.  Mon-erem, 

2.  Mon-eres, 

3.  Mon-eret, 

P.  1.  Mon-eremus, 

2.  Mon-eretis, 

3.  Mon-erent, 


I  might,  could,  Sic.  advise, 
Thou  mightst,  &c.  advise , 
He  might,  Sic.  advise  ; 

We  might ,  Sic.  advise. 

Ye  might,  &c.  advise, 
They  might,  &c.  advise , 


Perfect,  zzzaz/ 

S.  1.  Monu-erim, 

2.  Monu-eris, 

3.  Monu-erit, 

P.  1.  Monu-erimus, 

2.  Monu-eritis, 

3  Monu-erint, 


Zzare  advised ,  §  45.  III. 

7  may  have  advised, 

Thou  mayest  have  advised , 
He  may  have  advised  ; 

We  may  have  advised. 

Ye  may  have  advised, 

They  may  have  advised. 


§  60 


THE  VERB. - SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


121 


Pluperfect,  might ,  could ,  would ,  or  should  have  advised , 


S.  1.  Monu-issem, 

2.  Monu-isses, 

3.  Monu-isset, 

P.  1.  Monu-issemus, 

2.  Monu-issetis, 

3.  Monu-issent. 


§  45.  IV. 

J  might ,  &c.  A<zr*  advised , 

TAo?^  mightst ,  &r.  Aare  advised. 
He  might ,  &c.  Aare  advised; 

We  might ,  &c.  Aare  advised , 

Ye  might,  &c.  A«re  advised , 
They  might ,  &c.  Aare  advised , 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

S.  2.  Mon-e,  or  -eto,  Advise  thou ,  §  47.  11. 

3.  Mon- eto,  Pe£  him  advise; 

P.  2.  Mon-ete,  or  -etote,  Advise  ye  or  ?/ow, 

3.  Mon-ento.  Pe£  ^Aew  advise . 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Pres. 

Mon-ere, 

To  advise ,  §  47.  11. 

To  Aare  advised , 

Perf. 

Monu-isse, 

Fut. 

Esse  moniturus, 

To  he  about  to  advise , 

F.  PERF. 

F  uisse  moniturus, 

To  Aare  been  about  to  advise , 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 

Mon-ens 

Advising , 

Fut. 

Mon-iturus, 

About  to  advise. 

GERUNDS. 

Nom. 

Mon-endum, 

Advising ,  .,r 

Gen. 

Mon-endi, 

0/  advising ,  fe 

Dat. 

Mon-endo, 

To  advising, 

Acc. 

Mon-endum, 

Advising , 

All. 

Mon-endo, 

With,  &c.  advising.  £ 

*S.’ 


SUPINES. 

To  advise , 

To  he  advised,  or  to  advise. 
Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 
Indicative.  Subjunctive.  Imper.  Infinitive.  Part. 

Monens. 


Monltflm* 


Former,  Mon-itum, 
Latter,  Mon-itu. 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.  P. 


Moneo, 

Monebam, 

Monui, 

Mon  earn, 
Monerem, 

Mone. 

Monere, 

Monuerim, 

Monuisse, 

Monueram, 

Monebo, 

Monuissem. 

Esse  moniturus, 

Monuero. 

Fuisse  moniturus. 

11 


122 


VERBS. - SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


§61 


Doc-eo, 

Jub-eo, 

Vid-eo, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 

doc-ere,  docu-i,  doc-tum, 

jub-ere,  juss-i,  jus-sum, 

vid-ere,  vld-i,  vl-sum, 


To  teach . 
To  order. 
To  see . 


§  61.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation,  &c,  as  directed,  §  57.  1. — Mone- 
bo,  monuit,  moneret,  monuerit,  mone,  monuisse,  monens,  mo- 
nendum,  monebat,  monent,  monento,  monuisti,  monuere,  mo- 
nueratis,  monuissent. — Docent,  jubebat,  jusserat,  videret, 
videat,  videbit,  docueris,  doce,  docturus,  jussurus,  visum,  jus- 
su,  docens,  &c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  &c.  as  directed , 
§  57.  2. — I  have  advised,  I  will  advise,  he  may  advise,  I  might 
advise,  he  will  have  advised,  they  advise,  they  had  advised, 
they  might  have  advised,  thou  hast  advised,  ye  have  advised, 
I  did  advise,  he  was  advising. — He  teaches,  they  taught,  we 
had  ordered,  we  would  have  ordered,  I  saw,  I  have  seen, 
thou  wilt  see,  he  may  see,  they  would  have  ordered,  &c. 

3.  Translate  according  to  the  rules ,  §  57.  3.  4. — Licit , 
(he  says)  me  monere, — nos  monuisse, — illos  monere,  vos 
monituros  esse,  me  moniturum  fuisse. — Dixit  (he  said)  se, 
monere, — nos  videre, — eum  vidisse, — nos  visuros  esse,  me 
visurum  esse, — me  visurum  fuisse, — vos  vidisse,  se  docere, 
nos  docuisse,  vos  docturos  esse,  illam  ( that  she )  visuram 
esse,  ilium  docturum  esse,  &c. 

4.  As  directed ,  §  57.  3,  5.  He  says  that  I  advised,  he 
said  that  I  advised,  that  I  had  advised,  that  I  would  advise, 
he  says  that  I  will  advise,  that  I  would  have  advised,  he  said 
that  he  (sc)  saw,  had  seen,  would  see,  would  have  seen.  I 
advise  that  you  should  order,  he  says  that  I  am  advising,  that 
we  will  order,  &c. 


§  62.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres .  Ind,  Pres.  Inf.  Pzrf  Part. 

Moneor,  moneri,  monitus,  To  be  advised. 


VERBS. - SECOND  CONJUGATION 


123 


$  62 


Present  Tense,  am  advised ,  §  44. 1.  6. 


S.  1.  Mon-eor, 

2.  Mon-eris,  or  -ere, 

3.  Mon-etur, 

P.  1.  Mon-emur, 

2.  Mon-emini, 

3.  Mon-entur, 


I  am  advised , 
Thou  art  advised , 
He  advised $ 

TPe  are  advised , 

Ye  are  advised , 
They  are  advised . 


Imperfect,  was  advised ,  §  44,  II.  4. 


S.  1.  Mon-ebar, 

2.  Mon-ebaris,  or  -ebare, 

3.  Mon-ebatur, 

P.  1.  Mon-ebamur, 

2.  Mon-ebamini, 

3.  Mon-ebantur, 


J  was  advised , 

Thou  wast  advised , 
He  was  advised  ; 

We  were  advised , 
Ye  were  advised , 
They  were  advised . 


Perfect,  Aare  Z>ee?z,  was,  aw,  §  44.  III.  5. 


S.  1.  Mon-itus*  sum,  or  fui,  J  Aare  been  advised ,  &c. 

2.  Mon-itus  es,  or  fuisti,  TAoa  Aas£  been  advised ,  &c. 

3.  Mon-itus  est,  or  fuit ,  He  has  been  advised  ; 

P.  1.  Mon-iti  sumus,  orfuimus,JYe  Aare  Z>ee?2  advised , 

2.  Mon-iti  estis,  or  fuistis,  Ye  Aare  been  advised , 

3.  Mon-iti  sunt,  fuerunt,&c.  They  have  bee?i  advised. 


Pluperfect,  Aa^  Jee?z. 

<S.  Mon-itus  eram,  or  fueram,  I  had  been  advised , 

Mon-itus  eras,  or  fueras,  Thou  hadst  been  advised , 
Mon-itus  erat,  or  fuerat ,  He  had  been  advised ; 

P.  Mon-iti  eramus,  or fueramus,  We  had  been  advised , 
Mon-iti  eratis,  or  fueratis,  Ye  had  been  advised, 
Mon-iti  erant,  or  fuerant.  They  had  been  advised . 


Future,  shall,  or  will  be, 


S.  1.  Mon-ebor, 

2.  Mon-eberis,  or  -ebere 

3.  Mon-ebitur , 

P.  1.  Mon-ebimur, 

2.  Mon-ebimini, 

3.  Mon-ebuntur. 


I  shall  or  ivill  be  advised , 
Thou  shalt, or  wz7z  be  advised , 
He  sAaZZ,  or  W27Z  be  advised; 

TYe  shall,  or  will  be  advised , 
Ye  sAaZZ,  or  we7Z  be  advised , 
They  shall ,  or  wz7Z  be  advised . 


•  See  §  44.  III.  6.  ZVofe. 


124 


THE  VERB. - SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


§62 


Future  Perfect,  shall ,  or  will  have  been. 


S.  1.  Mon-itus  fuero, 

2.  Mon-itus  fueris, 

3.  Mon-itus  fuerit, 
P.  1.  Mon-iti  fuerimus, 

2.  Mon-iti  fueritis, 

3.  Mon-iti  fuerint, 


I  shall  have  been  advised , 
Thou  wilt  have  been  advised . 
He  will  have  been  advised; 
We  shall  have  been  advised , 
Ye  will  have  been  advised , 
They  will  have  been  advised . 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  may  or  can  be  advised . 


S. 


P. 


1.  Mon-ear, 

2.  Mon-earis,  or-e&re, 

3.  Mon-eatur; 

1.  Mon-eamur, 

2.  Mon-eamini, 

3.  Mon-eantur, 


I  may ,  or  can  be  advised , 

Thou  mayest ,  or  canst  be  advised , 
He  way,  or  ca?z  &e  advised; 

We  may ,  or  ca?z  be  advised., 

Ye  may ,  or  cara  be  advised , 

They  may ,  or  carc  Z>e  advised. 


Imperfect,  might ,  could,  would,  or  should  be. 


S.  1.  Mon-erer, 

2.  Mon-ereris, or  -erere, 

3.  Mon-eretur , 

P.  1.  Mon-eremur, 

2.  Mon-eremini, 

3.  Mon-erentur, 


J  might,  &c.  be  advised , 
TAoa  mightst,  &c.  5e  advised , 
He  might ,  &c.  be  advised; 

We  might ,  &c.  be  advised , 

Ye  might,  &c.  be  advised, 
They  might,  &c.  5e  advised. 


Perfect,  way  ^are  been  advised. 

S.  Monitus  sim,  or  fuerim,  J  way  Aare  been  advised, 
Monitus  sis,  or  fueris,  Thou  may esthavebeen  advised, 

Monitus  sit,  or  fuerit ,  He  may  have  been  advised; 

P,  Moniti  simus,  or  fuerimus,  JYe  way  ^are  been  advised, 
Moniti  sitis,  or  fueritis,  Ye  way  Aare  5ee?i  advised. 
Moniti  sint,  or  fuerint,  They  may  have  been  advised . 

Pluperfect,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been. 

Monitus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  might  &c.  have  been  advised, 
Monitus  esses,  or  fuisses,  Thou  mightst  have  been  advised, 
Monitus  esset,  or  fuisset ,  He  might  have  been  advised; 

Moniti essemus, or fuissemus,  We  might  havebeen  advised, 
Moniti  essetis,  or  fuissetis,  Ye  might  have  been  advised, 
Moniti  essent,  or  fuissent,  They  might  have  been  advised. 


§  63  THE  VERB. - SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


120 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


S.  2.  Mon  -ere,  or  -etor, 
3.  Mon-etor, 

P.  2.  Mon-Smmi, 

3.  Mon-entor. 


Be  thou  advised , 

Let  him  be  advised ; 
Be  ye  advised , 

Let  them  be  advised . 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Mon-eri>  To  be  advised ,  §  47.  11, 

Perf.  Esse,  or  fuisse  monitus,  To  have  been  advised , 
Fut.  Mon-itum  iri  To  be  about  to  be  advised. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Perf.  Mon-itus,-a,-um, 

l 

Fot.  Mon-endus,  -a,-um, 


advised ,  being  advised ,  or 
having  been  advised , 
to  be  advised,  proper,  or  ne¬ 
cessary  to  be  advised. 


\ 

Synofsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 

Subjunctive. 

Imper. 

Infinitive. 

Pres. 

Imp. 

Moneor, 

Monebar, 

Monear, 

Monerer, 

Monere. 

Moneri, 

Perf. 

Monitus  sum, 

Monitus  sim, 

Esse,  or  fu¬ 

Plup. 

Fut. 

Monitus  erarn 
Monebor, 

Monitus  essem. 

isse  monitus, 
Monltum  iri. 

F.P. 

Monitus  fuero 

Part 

Monitus, 

Monendus 


Doceor, 

Jubeor, 

Videor, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 


doceri,  doctus, 

juberi,  jussus, 

videri,  visus, 


To  be  taught. 
To  be  ordered. 
To  be  seen. 


§  63.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation ,  &;c.  as  directed ,  §  59.  1.  Mone- 
or,  monetur,  monebatur,  monebitur,  monitus  est,  moniti  es- 
tis,  moneamur,  moneretur,  monitus  fuero,  monere,  moneri, 
monitus,  monitus  esse,  monendus.  Videretur,  visus,  visum 
iri,  docerentur,  doceantur,  docemini,  doceammi,  jubebitur, 
jassi  fuerunt,  juberentur,  jubetor,  &c. 

11+ 


126  THE  VERB. - SECOND  CONJUGATION.  §  63 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  as  directed  §  59.2. 
I  was  advised,  he  has  been  advised, — he  may  be  advised,  we 
will  be  advised,  we  were  advised,  I  am  advised,  they  might 
have  been  advised.  Be  ye  advised,  to  be  about  to  be  advis¬ 
ed,  to  be  advised,  he  may  have  been  seen, — they  should  be 
ordered,  we  will  be  seen,  they  will  be  taught,  having  been 
taught,  necessary  to  be  taught,  let  them  be  taught ;  they  have 
been  ordered,  we  might  have  been  ordered,  to  be  about  to  be 
ordered,  being  ordered,  they  may  have  been  ordered,  &c. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Second  Conjugation. 

3.  Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  57.  1  ;  §  59.  1. 
Monebam,  monuerat,  monuerit,  monebunt,  moneam,  mone, 
monebar,  monitus  es,  monuit,  moneri,  doctus  sum,  docear, 
docerer,  docebitur,  docento,  docentor,  docentur,  jubet,  jus- 
serunt,  jusserint,  jubebo,  juberentur,  jussus  esse,  jube,  vi¬ 
deo,  vident,  videretur,  vide,  vidistis,  videratis,  viderent,  vi- 
dero,  videndum,  videns,  visurus,  vidisse,  visum  iri,  videri, 
monebuntur,  moneantur,  viderentur,  jusserim,  jubebarn,  ju- 
berer,  videntur,  docuerunt,  doce,  docens. 

4.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  as  directed ,  §  57.  2. 
I  am  advised,  he  advises,  they  will  advise,  ye  have  advised, 
they  will  have  advised,  he  will  be  advised,  he  is  taught,  he 
has  taught,  they  will  teach,  I  will  see,  they  may  see,  they 
are  seen,  he  has  been  seen,  to  order,  to  have  been  ordered, 
ordering,  about  to  order,  to  have  seen,  I  might  see,  I  might 
have  been  seen,  they  will  not  (non)  see,  he  will  not  see,  I 
do  not  advisev  he  is  teaching,  he  is  not  teaching,  he  will  not 
order,  I  will  order,  &c. 

5.  As  directed,  $  57. 3  and  4.  Licit  semonere, — nos  monu- 
isse, — eum  momturum  esse, — vos  videre, — eum  visum  iri ; 
Dixit  se  monere, — nos  monuisse, — eum  momturum  esse, 
vos  videre,  eum  visum  iri.  Licet  se  monere,  &c.  vos  monu¬ 
isse,  homines  momturos  esse,  feminam  momturam  esse,  vos 
jubere. 

6.  As  directed ,  §  57.  5.  He  says  that  he  advises, — that 
he  will  advise, — that  we  have  advised.  He  said  that  I  ad¬ 
vised,  that  he  had  advised,  that  they  would  have  advised,  that 
I  would  order,  would  have  ordered,  would  have  been  order¬ 
ed,  was  taught,  had  been  taught,  wouldhavebeen  taught,  &c. 


THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION 


127 


§  64 


§  64.  THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf,  Perf.  Ind,  Supine, 

Reg-o,  reg-ere,  rex-i,  rect-um,  Toru^e. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  rule ,  do  rule ,  am  ruling ,  §  44. 1. 


S,  1.  Reg-o, 

2.  Reg--is,* 

3.  Reg-it, 

P,  1.  Reg-imus, 

2.  Reo'-itis, 

3.  Reg-unt, 


I  rule ,  do  rule ,  am  ruling , 

Thou  rulest ,  r?iZe,  <zr£  ruling , 

He  rules,  does  rule ,  zs  ruling  ; 

We  rule ,  do  rule ,  are  ruling , 

Ye  rule ,  do  rule ,  are  ruling , 

They  rule ,  do  rule ,  are  ruling. 


Imperfect,  ruled,  did  rule ,  zoas  ruling ,  §  44.  II. 


S.  1.  Reg-ebam, 

2.  Reg-ebas, 

3.  Reg-ebat, 

P,  1.  Reg-ebamus, 

2.  Reg-ebatis, 

3.  Reg-ebant, 


J  ruled,  did  rule,  was  ruling , 

T Aoa  ruledst,  didst  rule,  wast  rulings 
He  ruled,  did  rule,  was  ruling  ; 

We  ruled,  did  rule,  were  ruling , 

Ye  ruled,  did  rule,  were  ruling, 
They  ruled,  did  rule ,  were  ruling. 


Perfect,  Def.  Aare  ruled ,  Indef.  ruled,  did  rule,  §  44.  III. 


S.  1. 
2. 
3. 

P.  1. 
2. 
3. 


Rex-i, 

Rex-isti, 

Rex-it, 

Rex-imus, 
Rex-istis, 
Rex-erunt,  or  -ere, 


J  Aare  ruled,  ruled,  did  rule, 

Thou  hast  ruled,  ruledst,  didst /mle> 
He  has  ruled,  ruled,  did  rule  ; 

We  have  ruled,  ruled,  did  rule> 

Ye  have  ruled,  ruled,  did  rule , 
They  have  ruled,  ruled,  did  rule . 


Pluperfect,  had  ruled.  §  44.  IY. 


iS.  1.  Rex-eram, 

2.  Rex-eras, 

3.  Rex-erat, 

P.  1.  Rex-eramus 

2.  Rex-eratis, 

3.  Rex-erant, 


I  had  ruled , 

Thou  hadst  ruled. 
He  had  ruled  ; 

We  had  ruled , 

Ye  had  ruled, 
They  had  ruled. 


•  C  and  g  are  hard  before  a,  o,  u;  and  soft  like  s  and  j  before 
and  i.  Soft  g  is  here  marked  in  Italics,  and  sounds  like  j. 


128 


THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


F uture,  shall ,  or  will  rule ,  §  44.  V. 


S.  1  Reg-am, 

2.  Reg-es, 

3.  Regret, 

P.  1.  Reg'-emus, 

2.  Reg--etis, 

3.  Reg--ent, 


I  shall,  or  will  rule , 
Thou  shalt ,  or  zz?z'Z£  rzzZe, 
i?e  sAzzZZ,  or  will  rule  ; 

We  shall ,  or  will  rule , 
Ye  sAaZZ,  or  wz’ZZ  rule, 
They  shall,  or  will  rule . 


F  UTURE-PEBFECT, 


shall,  or  will  have  ruled,  §  44.  VI. 


S.  1.  Rex-ero, 

2.  Rex-eris, 

3.  Rex-erit, 

P.  1.  Rex-erimus, 

2.  Rex-eritis, 

3.  Rex-erint, 


I  shall,  or  will  have  ruled, 
Thou  shalt ,  or  wilt  have  niledt 
He  shall,  or  will  have  ruled ; 

We  shall,  or  will  have  ruled , 
Ye  shall,  or  will  have  ruled , 
They  shall ,  or  will  have  ruled . 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr  esent  Tense,  may ,  or  can  rule,  §  45.  I. 


S .  1.  Reg-am, 

2.  Reg-as, 

3.  Reg-at, 

P.  1.  Reg-amus, 

2.  Reg-atis, 

3.  Reg-ant, 

Imperfect  might ,  could , 

S.  1.  Reg--erem, 

2.  Reg--eres, 

3.  Reg--eret, 

P.  1.  Reg’-eremus, 

2.  Reg-eretis, 

3.  Regr-erent, 

Perfect,  may 

S.  1.  Rex-erim, 

2.  Rex-eris, 

3.  Rex-erit, 

P.  1.  Rex-erimus, 

2.  Rex-eritis, 

3.  Rex-erint, 


I  may,  or  can  rule , 

Thou  mayesl ,  or  c<z?zs£  rwZe, 
iTe  may,  or  czzzz  rzzZe  ; 

JYe  may,  or  can  rule , 

Ye  ??zzzz/,  or  czzn  rzzZe, 

They  may,  or  can  rule. 

would,  or  should  rule,  §  45.  II. 

I  might,  See.  rule, 

Thou,  might st ,  See.  rule , 

He  might,  &c.  ride; 

We  might,  See.  rule, 

Ye  might,  Sec.  ride, 

They  might,  Sec.  rule. 

have  ruled ,  §  45.  III. 

I  may  have  ruled, 

Thou  mayest  have  ruled , 

He  may  have  ruled; 

TYe  may  have  ruled , 

Ye  may  have  ruled, 

They  may  have  ruled . 


129 


§  64  THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


Pluperfect,  might ,  could ,  would ,  or  should  have  ruled 

§  45.  IV. 


S.  1.  Rex-issem, 

2.  Rex-isses, 

3.  Rex-isset, 

P.  1.  Rex-issemus, 

2.  Rex-issetis, 

3.  Rex-issent, 


I  might ,  &c.  A<zre  rwZed 
Thou  might st,  &c.  /We  ruled. 
He  might,  &c.  Acre  ruled; 

We  might,  &c.  Aare  ruled , 

Ye  might,  &c.  A#oe  ruled. 
They  might,  &c.  Wue  ruled. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD,  §  42. 


S.  2.  Reg--e,  or  -ito, 
3.  Reg-ito, 

P.  2.  Reg-ite,or-itote, 
3.  Reg-unto, 


PwZe  ^Aow, 

Let  him  rule ; 

Rule  ye. 

Let  them  rule . 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Re^-ere, 

Perf.  Rex-isse, 

Fut.  Esse  recturus, 
F.Perf.  Fuisse  recturus, 


To  rule ,  §  47.  11. 

To  have  ruled, 

To  he  about  to  rule, 

To  have  been  about  to  rule . 


PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Re^-ens,  Ruling, 

Fut.  Rect-urus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  rule . 


Nom.  Reg--endum, 
Gen.  Reg-endi, 
Dat.  Reg-endo, 
Acc.  Reg'-endum, 
Abl.  Re^-endo, 


GERUNDS. 

Ruling, 

Of  ruling , 

To  ruling , 
Ruling, 

With,  &c.  ruling . 


SUPINES. 

Former,  Rect-um,  To  rule, 

Latter,  Rect-u,  To  be  ruled ,  or  to  rule . 

Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 
Pres  Rego, 

Imp.  Regebam, 
Perf.  Rexi, 
Plup.  Rexeram, 
Fut.  Regam, 
F.perf.  Rex8ro. 


Subj. 

Imper. 

Infinitive. 

Regam, 

Rege. 

RegSre, 

Regerem, 

Rexerim, 

Rexisse, 

Rexissem. 

'f.  ’ 1 

Esse  recturus, 
Fuisse  retturus. 

Participles 

Regens, 


Rectum*. 


130 


THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


§64 


Lego, 

Scribo, 

Caedo, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect. 

legere,  legi,  lectum,  To  read . 

scribere,  scripsi,  script-urn,  To  write . 

credere,  cecldi,  cresum,  To  slay . 


To  take . 


EXAMPLE  OF  VERBS  IN  -10.  ACTIVE  VOICE ; 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

Capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Pres.  Cap-io, 


Perf.  Cep-i, 

Plup.  Cep-erair 
Put.  Capi-am, 


Pres.  Capi-am, 


-is,  -it; 

-imus,  -itis, 

-ebamus,  -ebatis, 

-iunt. 

-ebas,  -ebat; 

-ebant. 

-isti,  -it; 

-imus,  -istis,  j 

-erunto? 

-ere. 

-eras,  -erat; 

-eramus,  -eratis, 

-erant. 

-es,  -et; 

-emus,  -etis, 

-ent. 

-eris,  -erit; 

-erimus,  -eritis, 

-erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

—as,  —at, 

-amus,  -atis, 

-ant. 

-eres,  -eret, 

-eremus,  -ergtis, 

-erent. 

V  •  V  •  1 

-eris,  -erit, 

-erimus,  -eritis, 

-erint. 

-isses,  -isset, 

-issemus.  -issetis. 

-issent, 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

•ito,  -ito ; 

-ite, or  -itote, 

-iunto. 

INFINITIVE. 


Present ,  Cap- ere. 

Perfect ,  Cep-isse. 

Future ,  Esse  capttirus. 
F.  Perfect ,  Fuisse  capturus. 


GERUNDS. 


N.  Capi-endum, 

G.  Capi-endi,  &c. 

So  also  Rapio,  rapere, 
Fugio,  fugere, 


PARTICIPLES. 


Present ,  Capiens. 

Future ,  Capturus -a, -um. 


SUPINES. 

Former,  Captum, 
Latter,  Captu. 

rapui,  raptum,  To  seize. 

fugi.  fugitum,  To flee. 


131 


§  65,66  THE  VERB — THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


$  65.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  57.  1. — Regebam, 
rexisti,  rexeram,  regam,  regerem,  rexero,  rexisset,  rege,  rex- 
isse,  regens.  Scribit,  scribebat,  scripsit,  scribemus,  scriba- 
mus,  legunt,  legeret,  leget,  lege,  legerunt,  legerant.  Capi- 
unt,  capiebat,  capiunto,  caperem,  cepit,  ceperim,  ceperam, 
cepissem,  capit,  capere,  capiendum,  & c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin,  as  directed ,  §  57. 
2. — He  rules,  we  are  ruling,  he  has  ruled,  we  will  rule, 
they  will  have  ruled,  ye  might  rule,  they  may  rule,  we  will 
rule,  they  were  ruling,  he  had  ruled,  they  might  have  ruled. 
He  has  read,  they  will  read,  we  shall  read,  to  have  read,  to 
have  written,  to  write,  writing,  write  thou,  let  them  write 

3.  Translate  according  to  the  Rules,  §  57.  3.  4.  ( Dicit 

he  says,)  me  regere,  me  scribere,  se  rexisse,  nos  recturos 
esse,  ilium  scripsisse,  me  scripturum  fuisse,  vos  lecturos 
esse,  me  capere,  vos  cepisse,  vos  capturos  esse,  vos  captu- 
ros  fuisse,  ( Dixit,  he  said,  )  me  regere,  me  rexisse,  me  rec- 
thrum  esse,  &c. 

4.  As  directed,  $  57.  4 — 5.  He  says  that  I  rule,  that  he 
ruled,  thdt  we  write,  that  they  will  write,  that  he  is  about 
to  write.  He  writes  that  he  rules,  that  you  are  reading,  that 
you  will  write.  He  said  that  he  was  writing,  that  you  had 
written,  that  we  would  write,  would  have  written.  He  will 
say  that  I  am  ruling,  was  ruling,  will  rule,  &c. 


§  66  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part . 

Reg-or,  reg--i,  rectus,  To  he  ruled • 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  am  ruled ,  §  44.  I.  6. 


S.  1.  Reg-or, 


I  am  ruled , 


2.  Reg-eris,  or  -ere, 


Thou  art  ruled , 
He  is  ruled  ; 


3.  Reg-itur, 


P.  1.  Re^-imur, 

2.  Reg-imini, 

3.  Reg-untur 


They  are  ruled. 


We  are  ruled , 
Ye  are  ruled , 


132 


THE  VERB - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


Imperfect,  was  ruled,  §  44.  II.  4. 
S.  1.  Reg-ebar,  I  was  ruled. 


2.  Reg'-ebaris,  or  -ebare, 

3.  Reg--ebatur, 

P.  1.  Reg--ebamur, 

2.  Reg--ebamini, 

3.  Reg'-ebantur. 

Perfect,  have  been  ruled,  was 

S.  1.  Rectus  sum,  or  fui, 

2.  Rectus  es,  or  fuisti, 

3.  Rectus  est,  or  fuit, 

P.  1.  Recti  sumus,  or  fuimus, 

2.  Recti  estis,  or  fuistis, 

3.  Recti  sunt,  fuerunt,  or  fui 


Thou  wast  ruled , 

He  was  ruled  ; 

We  were  ruled. 

Ye  were  ruled, 

They  were  ruled. 

ruled,  am  ruled,  §  44.  III.  5 

I  have  been  ruled. 

Thou  hast  been  ruled. 

He  has  been  ruled; 

We  have  been  ruled. 

Ye  have  been  ruled, 

:re,  They  have  been  ruled. 


Pluperfect,  had  been  ruled. 


S.  1.  Rectus  eram,  or  fueram,  I  had  been  ruled , 

2.  Rectus  eras,  or  fueras,  Thou  hadst  been  ruled , 

3.  Rectus  erat,  or  fuerat,  He  had  been  ruled  ; 

P.  1.  Recti  eramus,  or  fueramus,  We  had  been  ruled, 

2.  Recti  eratis,  or  fueratis,  Ye  had  been  ruled, 

3.  Recti  erant,  or  fuerant,  They  had  been  ruled. 

Future,  shall,  or  will  be  ruled. 


S.  1.  Reg-ar, 

2.  Reg-eris,  or  -ere, 

3.  Reo--etur, 

P.  1.  Re^-emur, 

2.  Reg'-emini, 

3.  Reg--entur, 


I  shall,  or  will  be  ruled. 
Thou  shall,  or  wilt  be  ruled, 
He  shall,  or  will  be  ruled  ; 

We  shall,  or  will  be  ruled. 
Ye  shall,  or  will  be  ruled, 
They  shall,  or  will  be  ruled . 


Future-perfect,  shall,  ox  will  have  been  ruled. 


S.  1.  Rectus  fuero, 

2.  Rectus  fueris, 

3.  Rectus  fuerit, 

P.  1.  Recti  fuerimus, 
2.  Recti  fueritis, 

3  Recti  fuerint, 


I  shall,  or  will  have  been  ruled, 
Thou  shalt,  or  wilt  have  been  miled , 
He  shall,  or  will  have  been  ruled ; 

We  shall,  or  will  have  been  ruled , 
Ye  shall,  or  will  have  been  ruled, 
They  shall,  or  will  have  been  ruled . 


§66 


THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


133 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  tense,  may  or  can  be  ruled. 


S.  1.  Reg-ar, 

2.  Reg-aris,  or  -are, 

3.  Reg-atur, 

P.  1.  Reg-amur, 

2.  Reg-ammi, 

8.  Reg-antur, 


I  may ,  or  can  be  ruied , 

Thou  may  est,  or  canst  be  ruled, 
He  may ,  or  can  be  ruled  ; 

We  may ,  or  can  be  ruled , 

Ye  may ,  or  be  ruled , 

They  may ,  or  ca?2  be  ruled. 


Imperfect,  might,  could ,  would ,  or  should  be. 


I  might,  &c.  ruled, 

Thou  mightst ,  &c.  be  mled. 
He  might.,  &c.  be  ruled; 

We  might,  &c.  beruled, 

Ye  might,  &c.  be  ruled, 
They  might,  &c.  beruled. 


S.  1.  Reg-erer, 

2.  Reg-ereris,  or-erere, 

3.  Reg-eretur, 

P.  1.  Reg-eremur, 

2.  Reg-eremmi, 

3.  Reg-erentur, 

Perfect,  ???«?/  been. 

S.  1.  Rectus  sim,  or  fuerim,  /  may  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Rectus  sis,  or  fueris,  Thou  mayest  have  been  ruled. 

3.  Rectus  sit,  or  fuerit,  He  may  have  been  ruled  ; 

P.  1.  Recti  simus,  or  fuerimus,  We  may  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Recti  sitis,  or  fuentis,  Ye  may  have  beenruled, 

3.  Recti  sint,  or  fuerint,  They  may  have  been  ruled. 

Pluperfect,  might,  could ,  would ,  or  should  have  been. 

Rectus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  might  &c.  have  been  ruled , 
Rectus  esses,  or  fuisses,  Thou  mightst  have  been  ruled , 
Rectus  esset,  or  fuisset,  He  might  have  been  ruled  ; 

Recti  essemus,  or  fuissemus,  We  might  have  been  ruled. 

Ye  might  have  been  ruled , 
They  might  have  been  ruled. 


Recti  essetis,  or  fuissetis, 
Recti  essent,  or  fuissent, 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


S.  2.  Reg- ere,  or  -itor, 
3.  Reg-itor, 

P.  2.  Reg-immi, 

3.  Reg-untor, 


Be  thoru  ruled, 

Bet  him  be  ruled  • 
Be  ye  ruled. 

Let  them  be  ruled. 


Pres.  Reg-i, 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

To  be  ruled,  §  47.  11. 
Perf.  Esse,  or  fuisse  rectus,  To  have  been  ruled, 
Fut.  Rectum  iri,  To  be  about  to  he  ruled. 

12 


134 


THE  VERB . —  THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


.  PARTICIPLES. 


Pert.  Rectus,  -a,  -urn,  j  k°Vin§  Um 

Fut.  Re^endus,-arum5  j 


Synopsis  of  the  moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 

Pres.  Regor, 

Imp.  Regebar, 
Perf.  Rectus  sum, 
Plup .  Rectus  eram, 
Fut.  Regar, 

F.  P.  Rectus  fuero 


Subjunctive. 

Imper. 

Infinitive. 

Regar, 

Regerer, 

Regere 

Regi, 

Rectus  sim, 

Esse  orfuisse 

Rectus  essem. 

rectus, 
Rectum  iri. 

Participles . 

Rectus, 

Regendus 


Legor, 

Scribor, 

Csedor, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 


legi,  lectus, 

scribi,  scriptus, 

csedi,  c£esus, 


To  be  read. 

To  be  written . 
To  be  slain . 


EXAMPLE  OF  VERBS  IN  -10— PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  Ind .  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Capior,  capi,  captus,  To  betaken . 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Cap-ior, 
Imp.  Capi-ebar 


5  -eris. 
\  -ere,' 


or 


3 

-Hur; 


1 


-imur 


2 

■imini. 


3 

-iuntur. 


A 


-ebaris,  or  _ 


ebare, 


-ebatur;  -ebamur,  -ebamlni,  -ebantur. 


Perf.  Captus  sum,  or  fui,  captus  es,  or  fuisti,  &c. 

Plup.  Captus  eram,  or  fueram,  captus  eras,  or  fueras,  &c. 

•p,  $  -eris,  or 

Fct.  Capi-ar,  £ -ere, 


-elurj  -emur,  -emlni,  -entur. 


F.  P.  Captus  fuero,  captus  fueris.  captus  fuerit,  &. c. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Capi-ar,  <  Air*s’  °?  -atur,  *amur,  -amini,  -antur. 

^  "O'!  Cj 

f  m  erens  ot  • 

Imp.  Cap-erer,  <  -  -eretur,  -eremur,  -eremlni,  -erentUT. 

7  (  -erere,  7  7  ' 

Perf.  Captus  sim,  or  fuerim,  captus  sis,  or  fueris,  &c. 

Plup.  Captus  essem,  or  fuissem,  captus  esses,  or  fuisses,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

2  3  2 

Pres.  Cap-ere  or  -Ttor,  -ltor*  -imini. 


3 

-iuntor 


§67 


THE  VERB. - THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


135 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Cap-i.  Perf.  Captus,-a,  -um. 

Perf.  Esse,  or  fuisse  captus.  Fut.  Capiendus, -a, -um. 
Fut.  Captum  iri. 

So  also  Rapior,  rapi,  raptus,  To  be  seized 


§  67.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  59.  1. — Regi- 
tur,  regetur,  regimmi,  rectus  est,  rectus  fuerit,  regerer,  re- 
gar,  regor,  regere,  reguntor,  rectus,  rectum  iri,  rectus  esse, 
regi,  regebatur,  reguntur,  regentur,  rectus  sim,  rectus  esset. 
Capiar,  capiuntur,  capiuntor,  capiebatur,  captus  sum,  &c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  as  directed ,  §  59. 
2, — He  is  ruled,  I  was  ruled,  they  will  be  ruled,  they  have 
been  ruled,  we  might  be  ruled,  he  might  have  been  ruled, 
they  were  ruled,  ye  had  been  ruled,  to  have  been  ruled,  be¬ 
ing  ruled,  to  be  ruled,  let  them  be  ruled. — They  are  taken, 
they  will  be  taken,  let  them  be  taken,  they  have  been  taken, 
he  will  be  taken,  they  might  be  taken,  be  thou  taken,  &c. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Third  Conjugation. 

3.  Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  57.  1;  or  §  59. 

1.  — Regebat,  rexerunt,  rexerat,  reget,  rexit,  rexerint,  legit, 
legit,  leget,  legat,  legerit,  scripserit,  scripsisse,  scribitur, 
scriptus  est,  scriptum  iri,  legi,  legere,  legisse,  rexisse,  lectus 
esse,  legitor,  rectus,  regens,  scripturus,  scribendus,  lectu, 
scribere,  scripsere,  legere,  legere,  legimini,  capiunt,  capiun- 
tor,  captus  sum,  capitur,  capitor,  ceperunt,  ceperint,  scrip¬ 
tum  esse,  rexi,  regi,  regam,  regeret,  &c. 

4.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  as  directed ,  §  57. 

2,  or  $  59.  2. — I  rule,  I  am  ruled,  he  rules,  they  are  ruled, 
they  have  ruled,  they  have  been  ruled,  they  will  rule,  he 
might  rule,  they  might  be  ruled,  we  will  read,  he  may  have 
been  taken,  they  will  have  been  ruled,  he  might  have  writ¬ 
ten,  to  be  ruled,  rule  thou,  let  him  be  ruled,  they  were 
writing,  they  might  write,  to  have  written,  to  have  read,  to 
have  ruled,  to  have  taken,  they  had  written,  had  ruled,  had 
read,  had  taken. 


136 


THE  VERB. — FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


§68 


§  68.  FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  bid.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

Audio,  audlre,  audlvi,  audltum,  To  hear 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  hear ,  do  hear ,  am  hearing ,  §  44.  I. 


<S.  1.  Aud-io, 

2.  Aud-is, 

3.  Aud-it, 

P.  1.  Aud-lmus, 

2.  Aud-itis, 

3.  Aud-iunt, 


I  hear ,  do  hear ,  am  hearing, 

Thou  hearest,  dost  hear,  art  hearings 
He  hears,  does  hear,  is  hearing; 

We  hear,  do  hear,  are  hearing, 

Ye  hear,  do  hear,  are  hearing, 

They  hear ,  do  hear,  are  hearing. 


Imperfect,  heard,  did  hear,  was  hearing,  §  44.  II. 


S.  1.  Audi-ebam, 

2.  Audi-ebas, 

3.  Audi-ebat, 

P.  1.  Audi-ebamus, 

2.  Audi-ebatis, 

3.  Audi-ebant, 


I  heard,  did  hear,  was  hearing. 
Thou  heardst,  didst  hear,  wast  hearing 
He  heard,  did  hear,  was  hearing: 

We  heard ,  did  hear,  were  hearing 
Ye  heard,  did  hear,  ivere  hearing. 
They  heard,  did  hear,  were  hearing. 


Perfect,  Def.  have  heard  ;  Indef.  heard,  did  hear,  §44.111. 


S. 


P. 


Audlv-i, 

Audlv-isti, 

Audlv-it,  . 

Audlv-i  mus, 
Audiv-istis, 
Audiv-erunt,  or -ere. 


I  have  heard,  heard,  did  hear, 

Thou  hast  heard,  heardst ,  didst  hear , 
He  has  heard ,  heard,  did  hear ; 

We  have  heard,  heard,  did  hear , 

Ye  have  heard ,  heard,  did  hear, 
They  have  heard,  heard,  did  hear. 


Pluperfect,  had  heard,  §  44.  IV. 


S.  1.  Audlv-eram, 

2.  Audiv-eras, 

3.  Audlv-erat, 

P.  1.  Audiv-eramus, 

2.  Audlv-eratis, 

3.  Audlv-erant, 


I  had  heard, 

Thou  hadst  heard , 
He  had  heard  ; 

We  had  heard, 

Ye  had  heard. 
They  had  heard . 


137 


§  68  THE  VERB. 

, - FOURTH  CONJUGATION.  137 

Future,  shall ,  or  will  hear ,  §  44.  V. 

S.  1.  Audi-am, 

I  shall ,  or  will  hear. 

2.  Audi-es, 

Thou  shalt,  or  wilt  hear , 

3.  Audi-et, 

He  shall ,  or  will  hear  ; 

P.  1.  Audi-emus, 

We  shall,  or  will  hear , 

2.  Audi-etis, 

Ye  shall,  or  will  hear, 

3.  Audi-ent, 

They  shall,  or  will  hear . 

F  UTURE-PERFECT, 

shall,  or  will  have  heard,  §  44,  VI. 

S.  1.  Audiv-ero, 

I  shall,  or  will  have  heard , 

2.  Audiv-eris, 

Thou  shalt,  or  wilt  have  heard , 

3.  Audiv-erit, 

He  shall,  or  will  have  heard; 

P.  1.  Audiv-erimus, 

We  shall,  or  will  have  heard , 

2.  Audlv-eritis, 

Ye  shall,  or  will  have  heard, 

3.  Audiv-erint, 

They  shall,  or  will  have  heard . 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Present  Tense,  may,  or  can  hear ,  §  45.  I. 

8.  1.  Audi-am, 

I  may,  or  can  hear, 

2.  Audi-as, 

Thou  mayest,  or  canst  hear , 

3.  Audi-at, 

He  may,  or  can  hear; 

P.  1.  Audi-amus, 

We  may,  or  can  hear, 

2.  Audi-atis, 

Ye  may,  or  can  hear , 

3.  Audi-ant, 

They  may  or  can  hear. 

Imperfect,  might ,  could,  would,  or  should ,  §  45.  II. 

S.  1.  Aud-irem, 

I  might,  & c.  hear, 

2.  Aud-ires, 

Thou  mightst,  &c.  hear. 

3.  Aud-iret, 

He  might,  &c.  hear; 

P.  1.  Aud-iremus, 

We  might,  &c.  hear. 

2.  Aud-iretis, 

Ye  might,  &c.  hear, 

3.  Aud-irent, 

They  might ,  &c.  hear. 

Perfect, 

may  have  heard,  §  45.  III. 

S .  1.  Audiv-erim, 

I  may  have  heard, 

2.  Audiv-eris, 

Thou  mayst  have  heard , 

3.  Audiverit, 

He  may  have  heard; 

P.  1.  Audiv-erimus. 

We  may  have  heard. 

2.  Audlv-eritis, 

Ye  may  have  heard , 

3.  Audiv-erint, 

They  may  have  heard . 

12* 

THE  VERB. - FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


138 


Pluperfect,  might ,  could,  would ,  or  should  hear,  §  45,  IV. 


S.  1.  Audlv-issem, 

2.  Audiv-isses, 

3.  Audlv-isset, 

P.  1.  Audlv-issemus, 

2.  Audlv-issetis, 

3.  Audiv-issent, 


I  might,  &c.  have  heard, 

Thou  might st,  &c .have  heard , 
He  might,  &c.  have  heard  ; 

We  might ,  &c.  have  heard , 

Ye  might ,  & c.  have  heard , 
They  might,  &c  have  heard . 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD,  §  42. 


2.  Aud-i,  or  -ito, 

3.  Aud-Ito, 

P.  2.  Aud-ite,  or  -ltote, 
3.  Aud-iunto, 


Hear  thou , 

Let  him  hear; 

Hear  ye,  or  you, 
Let  them  hear . 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Aud-lre, 

Perf.  Audlv-isse, 

Fut.  Esse  audlturus, 
F.  perf.  Fuisse  audlturus, 


To  hear,  §  47.  11. 

To  have  heard, 

To  be  about  to  hear, 

To  have  been  about  to  hear « 


PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Aud-iens,  Hearing , 

Fut.  Aud-Iturus,-a,-um,  About  to  hear . 


GERUNDS 

Nom.  Aud-iendum, 

Gen.  Aud-iendi, 

Hat.  Aud-iendo, 

Acc.  Aud-iendum, 

Abl.  Aud-iendo, 


Hearing , 

Of  hearing , 

T o  hearing , 
Hearing, 

With,  &c.  hearing . 


SUPINES. 


•  Former,  Audlt-um,  To  hear . 

Latter,  Audlt-u,  To  be  heard,  or  to  hear • 


Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 
Pres .  Audio, 

Imp.  Audiebam, 
Perf.  Audlvi, 

Pin  .  Audiveram, 
Fv ..  Audiam, 

F  .perf.  Audiv6ro 


Subjunctive. 

Imp. 

Audiam, 

Audi. 

Audlrem, 

Audiverim, 

Audivissem. 

Infinitive. 

Audire, 

Audivisse, 

Esse  audlturus. 
Fuisse  audlturus. 


Participle s 
Audiens 


Audi  turns. 


THE  VERB. - FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


139 


§  69 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 


Munio, 

munire, 

munivi, 

muni  turn, 

To  fortify. 

Venio, 

Venire, 

veni, 

ventum, 

To  come . 

Vincio, 

Vincire, 

vinxi, 

vinctum, 

To  hind. 

$  69.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  57.  1. — Audio, 
audiunt,  audlvit,  audiet,  audirent,  audi,  audlvisse,  audive- 
rant,  audivSrunt,  muniant,  munient,  muniverunt,  munlverint, 
muniunto,  muniunt,  venerat,  venisset,  vinxisti,  vinxisse,  vin- 
ciet,  vincirent,  vinciebam,  veniens,  ventum,  venturus,  &c. 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin,  &c.  as  directed, 
§  57.  2.  I  have  heard,  he  heard,  they  were  hearing,  we  will 
hear,  you  might  hear,  they  could  have  heard,  hear  thou,  let 
them  hear,  to  have  heard,,  hearing,  to  be  about  to  hear,  he 
shall  have  come,  they  will  bind,  let  them  bind,  to  have  bound, 
binding,  of  binding,  with  binding,  he  had  come,  he  had  bound, 
they  will  fortify,  I  was  hearing,  they  would  have  heard,  the 
men  ( homines )  may  have  heard,  about  to  hear,  of  hearing, 
they  had  bound — may  have  bound — will  have  bound ;  bind 
ye,  I  have  bound,  to  bind,  to  have  bound,  about  to  bind,  bind¬ 
ing,  to  have  been  about  to  fortify,  to  have  fortified,  &c. 

3.  Translate  accordbig  to  the  rule ,  §  57.  3.  4.  Dicit  ( he 
says,)  me  audire,  vos  audire,  eos  audlvisse,  hominem  audl- 
turum  esse,  hominem  auditurum  fuisse,  homines  audlturos 
esse,  feminam  f.  ( that  the  woman)  venturam  esse, — venturam 
fuisse,  Dixit  (he  said,)  se  (that  he  himself ,)  venturum  esse; 
eum  ( that  he,  viz.  some  other  person,  not  himself,)  venturum 
fuisse,  nos  venturos  esse,  &c. 

4.  As  directed ,  §  57.  3.  5.  He  says  that  I  hear,  that  we 
hear,  that  they  have  heard,  that  they  will  hear,  that  he  ( him¬ 
self )  will  come,  that  he  (some  other)  will  come,  that  the  men 
will  come,  that  the  women  will  come,  he  said  that  he  (him¬ 
self)  came,  that  he  (another)  came,  that  they  had  come,  that 
they  would  come,  that  they  would  have  come,  that  the  women 
would  come, — would  have  come,  &c.  He  will  say  that  I 
hear,  that  I  heard,  that  I  will  hear 


1 


140  TrlE  VERB. - FOURTH  CONJUGATION.  §  70 

§  70.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Pres.  bid.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Audior,  audlri,  audltus.  To  be  heard . 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense,  am  heard ,  $  44.  I.  6. 


S.  1.  Aud-ior, 

2.  Aud-iris,  or  -Ire, 

3.  Aud-Itur, 

P.  1.  Aud-imur, 

2.  Aud-immi, 

3.  Aud-iuntur, 


I  am  heard , 
Thou  art  heard , 
He  is  heard  ; 

We  are  heard , 
Ye  are  heard , 
They  are  heard . 


Imperfect,  was  heard ,  §44.  II.  4. 


<S.  1.  Audi-ebar,  I  was  heard, 

2.  Audi-ebaris,  or  -ebare.  Thou  wasi  heard 


3.  Audi-ebatur, 

P.  1.  Audi-ebamur, 

2.  Audi-ebammi, 

3.  Audi-ebantur, 


He  was  heard; 

Wewereheard , 

Ye  ivere  heard , 
They  were  heard. 


Perfect,  have  been  heard,  ivas  heard ,  awz  heard ,  §  44.  III.  5 


S.  1. 
2. 
3. 

P.  1. 
2. 
3. 


Audltus*  sum,  or  fui, 
Anditus  es,  or  fuisti, 
Audltus  est,  or  fuit, 

Audlti  sumus,  or  fuimus, 
Audlti  estis,  or  fuistis, 


I  have  been  heard , 
Thou  hast  been  heard , 
ife  Jeerc  heard  ; 

W e  have  been  heard , 
Ye  A«re  been  heard , 


Audlti  sunt,  fu  grunt,  or  fuere,  They  have  beenheard. 


Pluperfect,  Aad!  5eew  heard. 

S.  1.  Audltus*  eram,  or  fueram,  I  had  beenheard, 

2.  Audltus  eras,  or  fueras,  Thou  hadst  been  heard , 

3.  Audltus  erat,  or  fuerat,  He  had  beenheard  ; 

P.  1.  Audlti  eramus,  or  fueramus,  We  had  been  heard , 

2.  Audlti  eratis,  or  fuefratis,  Ye  had  been  heard , 

3.  Audlti  erant,  or  fuer ant,  They  had  been  heard . 


*  See  §  44.  III.  6  iVote. 


THE  VERB. — FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


141 


§  70 


Future,  shall,  or  will  be  heard. 


S.  1.  Audi-ar, 

2.  Audi-eris,  or -ere, 

3.  Audi-etur, 

P.  1.  Audi-emur, 

2.  Audi-emmi, 

3.  Audi-entur, 


I  shall ,  or  will  be  heard , 
Thou  shall,  or  wilt  be  heard , 
He  shall,  or  will  be  heard; 
We  shall ,  or  will  be  heard , 
Ye  shall,  or  will  be  heard , 
They  shall,  or  be  heard. 


Future-perfect,  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard. 


1.  Auditus  fuero, 

2.  Auditus  fueris, 

3.  Auditus  fuerit, 

P.  1.  Audlti  fuerimus, 

2.  Audlti  fueritis, 

3.  Audlti  fuerint, 


I  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard , 
Thou  shalt ,  or  wilt  have  been  heard 
He  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard; 

We  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard , 
Ye  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard , 
They  shall,  or  will  have  been  heard. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  may ,  or  can  be  heard. 


S.  1.  Audi  -ar, 

2.  Audi-aris  or  -&re, 

3.  Audi-atur, 

P.  1.  Audi-amur, 

2.  Audi-ammi, 

3.  Audi-antur, 


I  may,  or  can  be  heard, 

Thou  mayest,  or  canst  be  heard, 
He  may,  or  can  be  heard  ; 

We  may,  or  can  be  heard j 
Ye  may,  or  can  be  heard, 

They  may,  or  can  be  heard. 


Imperfect,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  heard. 


S.  1.  Aud-Irer, 

2.  Aud-Ireris,  or  -Irere, 

3.  Aud-Iretur, 

P.  1.  Aud-Iremur, 

2.  Aud-Iremini, 

3.  Aud-Irentur, 


I  might,  See.  be  heard, 
Thou  mightst,  &c.  be  heard , 
He  might,  &c.  be  heard, 

We  might ,  Sec.  be  heard. 

Ye  might,  Sec.  be  heard, 
They  might,  &c.  be  heard . 


Perfect,  may  have  been  heard. 

S.  1.  Auditus  sim,  or  fuerim,  I  may  have  been  heard, 

2.  Auditus  sis,  or  fueris,  Thou  mayest  have  been  heard 

3.  Auditus  sit,  or  fuerit,  He  may  have  been  heard; 

PA.  Audlti  slmus,  or  fuerimus,  We  may  have  been  heard, 

2.  Audlti  sltis,  or  fueritis,  Ye  may  have  been  heard, 

3.  Audlti  sint,  or  fuerint,  They  may  have  been  heard 


142  THE  VERB - FOURTH  CONJUGATION.  §  71 

Pluperfect,  mighty  could ,  would ,  or  should  have  been  heard. 


Audltus  essem,  or  fuissem, 
Auditus  esses,  or  fuisses, 
Audltus  esset,  or  fuisset, 
Auditi  essemus,  or  fuissemus, 
Audlti  essetis,  or  fuissetis, 
Auditi  essent,  or  fuissent, 


I  might ,  &c.  have  been  heard, 
Thou  mightst  have  been  heard. 
He  might  have  been  heard,  ; 
We  might  have  been  heard , 

Ye  might  have  been  heard , 
They  might  have  been  heard . 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


S.  2.  Aud-Ire,  or  -Itor, 
3.  Aud-Itor, 

P.  2.  Aud-Immi, 

3.  Aud-iuntor, 


Be  thou  heard , 

Let  him  be  heard; 
Be  ye  heard , 
j Let  them  be  heard. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Aud-iri,  To  be  heard ,  §  47.  11. 

Perf.  Esse,  or  fuisse  audltus,  To  have  been  heard. 
Fut.  Audltum  iri,  To  be  about  to  be  heard. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Perf.  Audltus  -a  -um,  Heard ,  being  heard ,  having  been  heard. 
Fut.  Audiendus  -a-um,  To  be  heard ,  proper, ox  necessary  to 

be  heard. 


Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses. 


Indicative. 
Pres.  Audior, 

Imp.  Audiebar, 
Perf.  Auditus  sum, 
Plup.  Auditus  eram, 
Fut.  Audiar, 

F.  P.  Auditus  fuero. 


Subjunctive. 

Imper. 

Infinitive. 

Audiar, 

Audirer, 

Audire. 

Audiri, 

Auditus  sim, 

Esse  or  fuisse 

Auditus  essem. 

auditus, 
Auditum  iri. 

Part . 


Auditus. 

Audien¬ 

dus. 


Munior, 

Polior, 

Vincior, 


After  the  same  manner  inflect, 

munlri,  munltus,  To  be  fortified. 

pollri,  polltus,  To  be  polished. 

vinclri,  vinctus,  To  be  bound. 


$  71.  EXERCISES  ON  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Give  the  designation,  ho.  as  directed,  §  59.  1. — Audior, 
audiar,  audiebatur,  audltus  sum,  audietur,  audlmini,  audig- 
mini,  audiammi,  audlremmi,  audltus  fueris,  audlre,  audlrl. 


143 


§71  TH  B  VERB. - FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

audiuntur,  audiuntor,  audientur,  audiantur,  audlti  sunt,  audl- 
tus  erat,  muniebantur,  munltus  fuerit,  munltus  esse,  munllup, 
munltur,  vincltur,  vincietur,vinciatur,  vincltor,  venltur. 

2.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin ,  as  directed,  §  59.  2. 
He  is  heard,  we  were  heard,  he  has  been  heard,  they  will  be 
heard,  ye  may  be  heard,  he  should  be  heard,  hear  ye,  to  be 
heard,  to  be  about  to  be  heard,  I  was  bound,  he  will  be  bound, 
they  would  be  bound,  we  may  have  been  bound,  to  be  fortifi¬ 
ed,  beino-  fortified,  to  be  about  to  be  fortified,  to  have  been 
fortified,  &c. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Fourth  Conjugation. 

3.  Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  directed ,  §  59.  1. — Audi- 
vit,  audlvere,  audiebatur,  audlretur,  audiuntur,  audiuntor, 
munient,  munlverint,  muni,  munlre,  munltor,  muniens;  ve- 
niat,  vestum,  veniendi,  veni,  venere,  ventum  erat,  vinciunt, 
vinciuntor,  vinclrent,  vinxisset,  vinctus  esset,  vinctus  fuerit, 
venit,  venit,  &c. 

4.  Translate  the  following  words  into  Latin,  &c.  as  directed , 
§  57.  2  •  or  59.  2. — I  was  heard,  he  heard,  he  has  heard,  we 
were  heard,  ye  had  been  heard,  they  will  be  heard,  they  may 
be  heard,  they  might  have  been  heard,  let  them  come,  they 
should  come,  they  will  come,  they  will  have  come,  I  might 
have  been  bound,  thou  hast  been  bound,  thou  wilt  be  bound, 
thou  art  bound,  thou  wast  bound,  to  be  about  to  be  bound,  be¬ 
ing  bound,  necessary  to  be  bound,  binding,  &c. 

5.  As  directed ,  §57.  3.  4. — ( Licit  he  says)  se  audire,  se 
audlvisse,  eum  audlturum  esse,  eos  audlturos  fuisse,  eum  au- 
dltum  esse,  nos  audltum  iri.  ( Dixit  he  said)  nos  audiri, 
vos  audltos  esse,  illos  audlturos  esse,  feminas  audlturas  fu¬ 
isse,  feminas  audltum  iri,  vos  vinclre,  vos  vinclri,  &c. 

6.  Translate  as  directed,  §  57.  5. — He  says  ( dicit )  that 
he  was  heard,  that  he  will  hear,  that  he  bound,  that  he  was 
bound,  that  he  will  come,  that  we  will  not  {non)  come ;  he 
said  [dixit)  that  he  ( himself )  heard,  that  he  ( someother )  heard, 
that  we  would  hear,  that  they  would  have  been  heard,  that 
we  are  bound,  that  we  have  been  bound,  that  we  would  be 
bound,  that  he  has  polished, — has  been  polished,  might  have 
polished, — might  have  been  polished  ,  to  have  been  polished — 
bound — fortified,  proper  to  be  fortified.  He  will  say  ( dicet ) 
that  we  will  hear — will  be  heard — would  have  been  bound- 
polished,  &c. 


144 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


§  72,  73. 


§  72.  DEPONENT  AND  COMMON  VERBS. 

1.  Deponent  verbs*  are  those  which  under  a 
passive  form  have  an  active  signification  ; 
loquor,  “I  speak  ;”  morior ,  “  I  die.” 

2.  Common  verbs  are  those  which  under  a  pas¬ 
sive  form  have  an  active  or  passive  signification  ; 
as,  criminor,  “  I  accuse,”  or  “  I  am  accused.” 

Obs.  1.  All  deponent  verbs  seem  to  have  been  originally 
passives.  Hence  there  are  many  verbs  which,  though  found 
in  the  active  voice,  are  used  as  deponents  in  the  passive. 

Obs.  2.  In  common  verbs  the  passive  sense  is  generally 
confined  to  the  perfect  participle;  thus,  we  can  say,  adeptus 
vicioriam ,  £<  having  obtained  the  victory  ;”  or,  victoria  adep- 
td ,  “  the  victory  being  obtained.”  Hence  adipiscor  is  called 
a  common  verb,  though  in  all  its  parts  except  the  perfect  par¬ 
ticiple,  it  is  usually  deponent,  or  has  an  active  signification. 

Obs.  3.  Deponent  verbs  are  conjugated  and  inflected  like 
the  passive  voice  of  the  conjugations  to  which  they  belong; 
except  that  they  have  also  the  participles,  gerunds,  supines 
and  future  of  the  infinitive  like  the  active  voice,  §49.  12.  13. 


§  73.  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

Pres.  Lid.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Miror,  mirari,  miratus,  To  admire 

[Inflected  like  Amor ,  §  58.] 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Mir-or,  -aris,  or  -are,  &c.  I  admire ,  am  admiring ,  &c. 
Imp.  Mir-abar,  -abaris,  or  -a.ba.re,  I  admired,  was  admiring^ 
Per. Miratus  sum,  or  fui,  &c.  I  have  admired ,  I  admired. 

Put.  Miratus -eram,  or  -fueram,  I  had  admired. 

Fut.  Mir-abor,-aberis,or-abere  I  shall,  or  will  admire. 

F.P.  Miratus  fuero,  &c.  I  shall ,  or  will  have  admired . 


*  So  called  from  depono ,  “  I  lay  aside,”  because,  as  is  supposed, 
having  formerly  been  common  verbs,  they  have  laid  aside  the  pas¬ 
sive  sense. 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


145 


§74 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Mir-er  -eris,  or  -ere,  &c.  I  may ,  or  can  admire . 
Imp.  Mir-arer,  -areris,  or  -arere,  I  might,  &c.  admire . 
Perf.  Miratus  sim,  or  fuerim,&c.  I  may  have  admired. 
Pluf.  Miratus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  might,  See.  have  admired. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Mir-are,  or  -ator,  &c.»  Admire  thou ,  &c. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Mirari,  To  admire ,  §  47.  11. 

Perf.  Miratus  esse,  or  fuisse,  To  have  admired . 

Fut.  Miraturus  esse,  To  be  about  to  admire. 

F.  perf.  Miraturus  fuisse,  To  have  been  about  to  admire* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Mirans,  Admiring. 

Perf.  Miratus,  Having  admired . 

F.  Act.  Miraturus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  admire. 

F.  Pass.  Mirandus,-a,  -um,  To  be  admired ,  deserving , 

ox  proper  to  be  admired • 

GERUNDS. 

Nom.  Mirandum,  Admiring . 

Gen.  Mirandi,  &c.  Of  admiring . 

SUPINES. 

Former.  Miratum,  To  admire. 

Latter.  Miratu,  To  be  admired . 

Synopsis  of  the  moods  and  tenses,  as  in  Amor ,  §  58. 


$  74.  DEPONENT  VERBS  OF  THE  SECOND  CON¬ 
JUGATION. 

Deponents  of  the  second  conjugation  are  few  in  number. 
Of  these,  medeor ,  “  to  heal,”  has  no  participle  of  its  own. 
In  their  stead,  medicdtus  is  used.  Mereor  has  merui ,  as  well 
as  merztus  sum  in  the  perfect  iridicative.  Reor  has  no  im¬ 
perfect  subjunctive. 


13 


146 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


§74 


Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Polliceor,  polliceri,  pollicitus,  To  'promise . 

[Inflected  like  Moneor ,  §  62.] 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Pollic-eor,  -eris,  or  -ere,  &c.  I  promise,  &c. 

Imp.  Pollic-ebar  -ebaris,or  -ebape,  &c.  I  promised ,  &c. 

Pere.  Pollicitus  sum,  or  fui,  &c.  I  have  promised ,  &c. 

Plup.  Pollicitus  eram,  or  fueram,  &c.  I  had  promised ,  &c. 
Ftit.  Pollic-ebor  -eberis  or  -ebere,  &c.  I  shall  or  will  promise^ 
F.  P.  Pollicitus  ero,  or  fuero,  &c.  I  shall,  or  will  have 

promised. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Pollice-ar,-aris,  or  -are,  &c.  I  may, or  can  promise, &c. 
Imp.  Pollic-erer,-ereris,or-erere,J  might,  &c.  promise. 
Per.  Pollicitus  sim,  or  fuerim,  &c .1  may  have  promised ,  &c. 
Plup. Pollicitus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  mi  ghtfiic. have  promised • 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Pollic-ere,  or  -etor,  &c.  Promise  thou ,  &c. 
INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Polliceri,  To  promise.  $  47.11. 

Perf.  Pollicitus  esse  or  fuisse,  To  have  promised. 

Fut.  Polliclturus  esse,  To  be  about  to  promise. 

F.  Perf  Polliclturus  fuisse,  To havebeen about  to promise 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Pollicens,  Promising. 

Perf.  Pollicitus,  Having  promised. 

F ut.  Act.  Polliclturus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  promise. 

Fut.  Pass.  Pollicendus,  -a,  -um,  To  be  promised. 

GERUNDS.  SUPINES. 

Nom.  Pollicendum,  Promising.  1.  Pollicltum,  To  promise • 
Gen.  Pollicendi,  Of  promising ,  2.  Pollicltu,  To  bepromised • 

Synopsis  of  the  moods  and  tenses,  as  in  §  62. 


147 


§  75  DEPONENT  VERBS. 

§  75.  DEPONENT  VERBS  OF  THE  THIRD  CON¬ 
JUGATION. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres .  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Utor  uti,  usus,  To  use . 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Ut-or  -eris,  or  -ere,  &c.  I  use ,  do  use ,  cttz  using ,  &c. 
Imp.  Ut-ebar, -ebaris, or -ebare,  Iused,diduse,  was  using, &c. 
Perf.  Usus  sum,  or  fui,  &c.  I  have  used,  used,  did  use,  &c. 
Peup.  Usus  era.m,  or  fueram,  &c.7  wse7,  &c. 

Fut.  Ut-ar,  -eris,  or  -ere,  &c.  I  shall,  or  WZZ  wse,  &c. 

F.  P.  Usus  ero,  or  fuero,  &c.  I  shall, or  will  have  used,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pre.  Ut-ar,  -aris,  or  -are,  &c.  I  may ,  or  can  use,  &c. 

Imp.  Ut-erer,  -ercris  or  erere,  &c. I  might ,  could,  &c.  wse,  &x?. 
Per.  Usus  sim,  or  fuerim,  &c.  7  wa?/  have  used,  &c. 

Peu.Usus  essem,  or  fuissem,  &c.  I  might,  &c.  haveused,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Ut-ere,  or  -itor,  &c.  Use  thou,  &c. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Uti, 

Perf.  Usus  esse,  or  fuisse, 
Fut.  Usurus  esse, 

F.  P  Usurus  fuisse, 


To  use.  §  47.  11. 

To  have  used. 

To  he  about  to  use. 

To  have  been  about  to  use • 


PARTICIPLES. 


Pres.  Utens, 

Perf.  Usus, 

F.  Act.  Usurus,  -a,  -um, 

F.  PAss.Utendus,  -a,  -um, 

GERUNDS. 

Nom.  Utendum,  Using, 
Gen.  Utendi,  Of  using,  &c. 


Using. 

Having  used. 

About  to  use. 

To  be  used,  &c. 

SUPINES. 

To  use. 

To  be  used,  to  use 


1.  Usum, 

2.  Usu, 

Synopsis  of  the  moods  and  tenses,  as  in  §  66 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


148 


§76 


§  76.  DEPONENT  VERBS  OF  THE  FOURTH  CON- 

JUGATION. 


Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Part. 

Metior.  metiri,  mensus,  To  measure . 

Pr.  Met-ior,  -Iris,  or  -Ire,  &c.  I  measure ,  am  measuring. 

Imp.  Meti-ebar,-ebaris,  or -eb&re,  I  measured, was  measuring. 
Per.  Mensus  sum,  or  fui,  &c.  I  have  measured,  measured. 
Plu.  Mensus  eram,  or  fueram,&c.  I  had  measured. 

Fut.  Meti-ar,  -eris,  or -ere,  &c.  I  shall,  or  will  measure , 
F.  P.  Mensus  ero,  or  fuero,  &c.  I  shall,  or  will  have  measured. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Meti-ar,  -aris,  or  -are,  &c.  I  may,  or  can  measure • 
Imp.  Metl-rer,  -reris,  or  -rere,  I  might,  &c.  measure. 
Perf.  Mensus  sim,  or  fuerim,  I  may  have  measured. 
Plup.  Mensus  essem,  or  fuissem,  I  might, &c.  have  measured, 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Met- ire  or  -Itor,  &c.  Measure  thou ,  & c. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Metiri,  To  measure,  §  47.  11. 

Perf.  Mensus  esse,  or  fuisse,  To  have  measured. 

Fut.  Mensurus  esse,  To  be  about  to  measure • 

F.  Per.  Mensurus  fuisse,  To  havebeen  about  to  measure, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Metiens,  Measuring, 

Perf.  Mensus,  Having  measured, 

Fut.  Act.  Mensurus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  measure , 

Fut.  Pass.  Metiendus,  -a,  -um,  To  be  measured. 

GERUNDS.  SUPINES 

N.  Metiendum,  Measuring.  l.Mensum,  To  measure^ 

G.  Metiendi,  Of  measuring,  &c.  2.  Mensu,  To  be  measured. 

Synopsis  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses,  as  in  §  70. 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


149 


§  77.  EXERCISES  ON  DEPONENT  VERBS. 

1.  Miror,  I  admire.  3.  Utor,  I  use. 

2.  Polliceor,  I 'promise.  4.  Metior,  I  measure. 

1.  Give  the  designation*  of  the  verb, — conjugate  it, — give  the  tense, 
mood,  -person,  number,  and  translation  of  the  following  words ,  always 
observing  the  same  order,  thus; — Miror,  verb,  trans.,  deponent,  first, 
Miror,  mirari,  miratus.  It  is  found  in  the  present  indicative,  first 
person,  singular;  “  I  admire,  do  admire,  am  admiring .” 

Mirabatur,  mirabitur,  mirantur,  mirabuntur,  mirarentur, 
pollicitus  sum,  pollicitus  erat,  pollicitus  fuerit,  pollicerentur, 
utitur,  usus  est,  uti,  usurus,  utens,  utendum,  uteretur,  utar, 
metiris,  metiuntur,  metiuntor,  metimini,  mensus  erat,  mensus 
sit,  mensi  fuerunt,  utere,  utere,  pollicere,  pollicitus,  pollicens. 

2.  Translate  the  following  English  words  into  Latin,  naming  the 
part  of  the  verb  used-,  thus,  u  I  have  admired;”  miratus  sum:  In  the 
perfect  indicative,  first  person,  singular. 

They  will  use,  we  shall  measure,  let  them  measure,  about 
to  use,  we  have  used,  they  may  have  used,  he  will  have  us¬ 
ed,  they  will  promise,  they  would  have  promised,  we  might 
admire,  I  would  have  used,  use  thou,  let  them  use,  promise 
ye,  let  us  use,  (§  45.1.  1.)  let  us  admire,  they  have  promis¬ 
ed,  promising,  having  promised,  to  measure,  let  us  measure. 

3.  Translate  the  following  into  English,  according  to  the 
Rules  and  Examples ,  §  57.  3.  4. — Dicit  ( he  says)  me  mi¬ 
rari,  vos  polliceri,  nos  miratos  esse,  eos  pollicituros  esse, 
homines  mensuros  esse,  feminas  pollicituras  esse,  te  uti,  se 
mirari,  eum  mirari,  me  mensurum  esse,  vos  usuros,  (§  47. 
Note  1.)  dicitur  {he  is  said)  pollicitus  esse,  (§  47.  6.) 
Dixit  {he  said)  se  mirari,  nos  pollicitos  esse,  eos  pollicitu¬ 
ros,  vos  mensos  esse,  feminas  mensuras,eum  pollicitum. 

4.  Translate  the  following  into  Latin,  according  to  di¬ 
rection ,  §  57.5. — He  says  (dicit)  that  I  am  using,  that  thou 
admirest,  that  he  has  measured,  that  we  will  promise,  that 
the  men  will  measure,  that  the  women  will  use,  that  you 
will  measure,  that  I  would  have  used,  that  they  would  have 
admired,  that  they  admired.  He  said  (dixit)  that  I  was 
using, — had  been  using,  that  you  were  measuring,  that  he 
measured,  that  they  had  promised,  that  they  would  use. 

*  In  parsing  deponent  verbs,  it  is  necessary  in  giving  the  designa* 
tion  to  state  whether  the  verb,  as  there  used,  is  transitive  or  intransi¬ 
tive:  But  in  stating  the  part  of  the  verb  used,  it  is  unnecessaiy  to 
mention  the  voice,  because  deponent  verbs  have  only  the  passive  form. 

13* 


15L 


NEUTER  PASSIVE  VERBS. 


$  78  NEUTER  PASSIVE  VERBS. 

1.  Neuter  Passive  Verbs,  are  those  which  with  an  in¬ 
transitive  or  neut.  meaning  throughout,  have  a  passive  form  in 
the  perfect,  and  tenses  derived  from  it,  but  an  active  form  in 
the  other  tenses.  They  are  the  following. 

Second  Conjugation . 


Audeo, 

Gaudeo, 

audere, 

gaudere, 

ausus, 

To  dare. 

gavisus, 

To  rejoice. 

Soleo, 

solere, 

solitus, 

To  be  wont 

Third  Conjugation. 

Fido, 

fid  ere, 

fisus, 

To  trust. 

So  also  the  compounds  of  fido ,  confido ,  “  I  trust,”  and 
diffido,  11 1  distrust,”  which  have  also  confidi, and  difftdi, in 
the  perfect.  Neuter-passives  are  inflected  thus, 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres .  Inf.  Perf.  Part* 

Audeo,  audere,  ausus,  To  dare . 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Aud-eo,  -es,  -et,  &c.  I  dare ,  do  dare,  am  daring. 

Imp.  Aud-ebam,  -ebas,  ebat,  &c.  I  dared,  ivas  daring ,  &c. 
Perf.  Ausus  sum,  or  fui,  & c,  Iha  ve  dared, dared,  did  dare 

Plup.  Ausus  eram,  or  fueram,  I  had  dared. 

Fut.  Aud-ebo,  -ebis,  -ebit,  &c.  I  shall ,  or  will  dare. 

F.P.  Ausus  fuero,  &c.  I  shall  have  dared. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD." 

Pres.  Aud-eam,  -eas,  -eat,  &c.  I  may,  or  cam  dare. 

Imp.  Aud-erem, -eres, -eret,  &c.  I  might,  could  See.  dare, 
Perf.  Ausus  sim,  or  fuerim,  &c.  I  may  have  dared. 

Plup.  Ausus  essem,  or  imssem^c.Imight,  Sec.  have  dared. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Aud-e,  or  -eto,  &c. 

INFINITIVE 

Pres.  Audere, 

Perf.  Ausus  esse,  or  fuisse, 

Fut.  Ausurus  esse, 

F.  Perf.  Ausurus  fuisse, 


Dare  thou,  See. 

MOOD. 

To  dare,  §  47.  11. 

To  have  dared. 

To  he  about  to  dare . 

To  have  been  about  to  dare. 


THE  VERB - GENERAL  REMARKS. 


161 


§  79 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Audens,  Daring, 

Perf.  Ausus,  -a,  -um,  Havmg  dared. 

Fut.  Act.  Ausurus,  -a,  -um,  About  to  dare. 

Fut.  Pass.  Audendus,  a,  -um,  To  be  dared ,  &c.  {seldom  used.) 

GERUNDS.  SUPINES. 

Nom.  Audendum,  Daring.  1.  Ausum,  To  dare. 

Gen .  Audendi,  &c.  Of  daring.  2.  Ausu,  To  be  dared ,  to  dare. 

2.  The  following  verbs  are  called  Neutral  Passives,  namely 
fio,  “  I  am  made,”  or  u  I  become;”  vapulo,  “  I  am  beaten;” 
veneo ,  “  I  am  sold.”  They  have  an  active  form,  but  a  passive 
signilication,  and  serve  as  passives  to  facio ,  verbero  and  vendo. 
Fio  has  the  passive  form  in  the  preterite  tenses,  §  83.  8. 


$  79.  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  CONJUGA¬ 
TIONS. 

1.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  active,  both  in  the  indica¬ 
tive  and  subjunctive,  are  often  shortened  by  a  syncope  as 
follows : 

1st.  In  the  first  conjugation  avi  and  ave  often  drop  vi  and  ve  before 
sor  r,  and  circumflect  the  a ,  thus  ;  for  amavisti,  amavissem ,  amdvZram , 
amavSro,  amavSrim,  &c.  we  often  have  amasti,  amassem,  amdram , 
amaro ,  amarim ,  &c.  Also  in  the  second  and  third  conjugation  - evi , 
drops  vi  in  the  same  situation  ;  as,  complesti,  for  complevisti ;  dele- 
ram,  for  delevtram  ;  decrcssem,  for  decrevissem  ;  &c.  But  ovi  is  syn. 
copated  only  in  the  preterite  verb  novi,  and  the  compounds  of  movSo; 
as,  norant,  for  noverant ;  ndsse,  for  novisse  ;  commossem ,  for  commo 
vissem,  &c. 

2d.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  ivi,  frequently  loses  vi  before  s;  as, 
audisti,  for  audlvisti ;  audissem,  for  audivissem.  Sometimes  the  v 
only  is  dropped  between  two  vowels  :  as,  audii  for  audivi  ;  audiSravi 
for  avdivZram,  &,c.  And  so  also  with  other  preterites  of  the  same 
form,  with  the  tenses  derived  from  them  ;  as,  petii  for  petivi  ;  itram 
for  IvZram,  &c. 

2.  The  perfect  indicative  active,  third  person,  plural,  has 
two  forms,  -erunt  and  -Ire.  Both  forms  have  the  same  mean- 


GENERAL  REMARKS,  ETC. 


152 


ing,  the  first  is  more  common  with  the  earlier,  and  the  se¬ 
cond  with  the  later  writers. 

3.  In  the  passive  voice  there  are  two  forms  of  the  second 
person,  singular,  namely,  -ris  and  -re.  The  termination  -re 
is  rarely  used  in  the  present  indicative  ;  in  the  other  tenses 
- re  is  more  common  than  -ris,  especially  in  Cicero. 

4.  The  imperatives  of  dico ,  duco,  facio  and  fero,  are  usu¬ 
ally  written  die ,  due ,  fac ,  fer ;  also  in  their  compounds  ex¬ 
cept  in  those  of  facio  which  change  a  into  i;  as  confxce ,  'per - 
fice ,  &c. 

5.  In  the  old  forms  of  the  language,  the  present  infinitive 
passive  was  lengthened,  especially  among  the  poets,  by  add¬ 
ing  -er;  as,  amdrier  for  amari; — legier  for  legi ,  &e. 

6.  The  terminations  -rimus  and  -ntis  in  the  Future-per¬ 
fect  indicative,  and  Perfect  subjunctive,  have  the  i  sometimes 
long  and  sometimes  short.  It  is  marked  short  in  the  preced¬ 
ing  paradigms.  The  pupil  may  be  accustomed  to  give  it 
both  ways. 

7.  In  the  passive  voice,  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  have 
two  forms.  Of  these,  the  perfect  participle  with  fui  and 
fueram  expresses  the  completion  of  past  action  more  empha¬ 
tically  than  when  joined  with  sum  and  eram .  Thus,  pransus 
S7im  means,  “  I  have  dined,”  “I  have  just  dined;”  pransus 
fui ,  means,  “I  have  dined  some  time  ago.”  §  49.  14. 

8.  The  verb  sum ,  through  all  its  tenses  with  the  future 
participle  in  - rus ,  is  used  to  express  the  intention,  at  the  time 
referred  to,  of  doing  a  thing  presently,  or  that  the  action  is, 
or  was,  or  will  be  on  the  point  of  being  done.  When  this 
idea  is  to  be  conveyed,  this  form  of  expression  is  used  in  pre¬ 
ference  to  the  Future,  which  simply  denotes  that  an  act  will 
be  effected  in  future  time.  This,  which  proceeds  as  follows, 
is  sometimes  called  the, 


FIRST  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Amaturus  (-a  -um)  sum, 
Imp.  Amaturus  eram, 

Perf.  Amaturus  fui, 

Plup.  Amaturus  fueram, 

Fut.  Amaturus  ero, 


I  am  about  to  lave, 

I  ivas  about  to  love , 

I  have  been  about  to  love , 
I  had  been  about  to  lovet 
I  shall  be  about  to  love* 


Amaturus  fuero,  is  not  used. 


§79 


153 


GENERAL  REMARKS,  ETC. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOT), 

Pre.  Amaturus  sim,  I  may  be  about  to  love , 

Imp.  Amaturus  essem,  I  might ,  &c.  be  about  to  love . 

Per.  Amaturus  fuerim,  I  may  have  been  about  to  love , 

Plup.  Amaturus  fuissem,  I  might ,  &c.  have  been  about  to  love • 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Amaturus  esse,  To  be  about  to  love . 

Perf.  Amaturus  fuisse,  To  have  been  about  to  love. 

9.  In  like  manner,  the  future  participle  in  - dus ,  express¬ 
ing  propriety  or  necessity  of  doing  at  the  time  referred  to,  is 
joined  with  all  the  tenses  of  the  verb  sum ,  and  thus  forms 
what  is  called  the, 

SECOND  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 

T1ius,Pr.  Amandus  sum,  I  deserve ,  or  ought  to  be  loved , 

Imp.  Amandus  eram,/  deserved ,  or  ought  to  be  loved.  & c. 

and  so  forth  through  all  the  other  tenses,  as  with  the  partici¬ 
ple  in  - rus ,  No.  8.  In  analyzing  such  expressions,  however, 
it  is  better  to  parse  each  word  of  the  compound  separately, 
and  combine  them  by  the  rules  of  syntax.  A  stronger  neces¬ 
sity  is  expressed  by  the  Gerund,  with  the  verb  est;  thus, 
scribendum  est  mihi  epistolam ,  is  “I  must  write  a  letter, 
i.  e.  I  am  compelled  to  do  it ,  whereas,  scribenda  est  mihi 
epistola,  means  simply,  UI  should  write  a  letter,”  see  syn¬ 
tax,  §  147. 

10.  The  future  infinitive  passive  is  a  compound  of  iri, 
the  present  infinitive  passive  of  eo ,  “to  go,”  used  imperson¬ 
ally,  and  the  supine  in  -um;  so  that  amatum  iri ,  literally  is 
“  to  be  going  to  love.” 

11.  The  verbal  adjective  in  - bundus ,  is  rendered  like  the 
present  participle,  but  with  increased  strength ;  thus,  errans 
wandering  ;  errabundus ,  “  wandering  too  and  fro  ;”  ?noriensf 
“dying;”  moribundus ,  “in  the  agonies  of  death,”  &c. 

12.  The  meaning  and  use  of  the  Gerundive  participle  al¬ 
ready  mentioned,  §  49.  7,  will  be  more  fully  explained  in 
Syntax,  §  147.  Rule  LXII. 


164 


COMPOUND  VERBS. 


§80 


$  80.  COMPOUND  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  compounded  chiefly  with  prepositions,  which 
modify  the  simple  verb  according  to  their  respective  mean¬ 
ings  ;  thus,  eo  “I  go”  in  composition  with  different  preposi¬ 
tions  is  modified  by  them  ;  as,  adeo  “  I  go  to  ;”  abeo ,  “I  go 
from;”  exeo,  “  I  go  out;”  ineo ,  “I  go  in,”  &c.  In  the  for¬ 
mation  of  compounds  due  regard  must  be  paid  to  the  follow¬ 
ing 

GENERAL  RULES. 

1.  Compound  verbs  form  the  perfect  and  supine  in  the 
same  manner  as  simple  verbs;  as,  A mo,  amdre ,  amavi ,  amd- 
turn  ;  red-amo ,  red-amdre ,  red-amdvi ,  red-amatum. 

2.  Simple  verbs  which  double  the  first  syllable  in  the  per¬ 
fect,  drop  the  reduplication  in  the  compounds  ;  as  pello ,  pe - 
puli ;  re-pello,  re-puli .  Except  prcecurro,  re-pungo ,  and 
the  compounds  of  do ,  sto ,  disco ,  and  posco. 

3.  Compound  verbs  which  change  a  of  the  present  into  z, 
have  e  in  the  Supine  ;  as,  facio ,  per-Jicio.  Sup.  perfectum . 
Except  verbs  ending  in  -do,  -go  ;  with  the  compounds  of 
habeo,  placeo ,  sczZzo,  sapio,  and  statuo. 

4.  V erbs  which  are  defective  in  the  Perfect  likewise  w^ant 
the  Supine. 

5.  The  following  changes,  which  happen  to  the  preposition, 
and  to  the  simple  verb,  in  a  state  of  composition,  merit  atten¬ 
tion. 

A  is  used  in  composition  before  m  and  r.  Ab  before  vowels,  and 
d,  f,  h,  j,  Z,  n,  r,  s.  Before  fero  and  fugio ,  it  becomes  au ;  as, 
aufero ,  aufugio.  Abs  is  used  before  c  and  t :  as,  abscedo,  abstuli. 

Ad  changes  d  into  the  first  letter  of  the  simple  beginning  with  c , 
/,  h  n ,  p,  r,  s,  t:  as,  accurro ,  officio,  aggero.  In  some  wri¬ 
ters  it  remains  unaltered,  as  adficio 

Am.,  (i.  e.  ambi,  from  a[A(pt,circum,)  before  c,  q,  f,  h,  is  changed 
into  cm:  as,  anquiro,  anhelo.  Sometimes  it  assumes  its  own  b :  as, 
arnbio. 

Circum  remains  unaltered.  The  m  is  sometimes  changed  :  as, 
cxrcundo  for  circuindo  ;  or  omitted  :  as,  circueo  for  circumco. 

Con,  before  a  vowel  or  h,  drops  the  n:  as,  coaleo,  cohibeo  ;  before 
l,  its  n  becomes  l ;  and  before  b,  p,  m,  it  becomes  m;  and  before  r 
it  changes  n  into  r  ;  as,  colligo,  comburo,  comparo,  commeo,  corripio. 
In  comburo  it  assumes  b  after  it. 

Di  is  used  before  d,  g,  l,  m,  n,  v:  as,  diduco,  digladior.  Dis 
and  di  before  r ;  as,  disrumpo,  dirump o  ;  likewise  .before  j  :  as,  dis- 
judico,  dijudico.  Dis  is  used  before  c,  p,  q,  s,  t:  as,  discumbo ,  dis • 


§81 


LIST  OP  VERBS. 


155 


peLo  Before  sp  and  st ,  s  is  removed,  and  before/"  it  is  changed 
into/:  as,  dispicio,  disto,  diffiteor.  Before  a  vowel,  it  assumes  r; 
as,  dirimo,  from  emo. 

E  is  found  before  b,  d ,  g,  1,  m,  n,  r,  and  before  j  and  v:  as; 
ebibo,  educo,  ejicio .  eveho.  Ex  is  used  before  vowels,  and  h,  c,  p , 
q,  t ,  s:  as,  exaro  exhibeo  cxcutio ;  before  /,  x  becomes/:  as, 
ejic»„ 

In  sometimes  changes  n  into  the  first  letter  of  the  simple  verb  :  as, 
illudo ;  but  before  b,  m,  p ,  itchanges  n  into  m  :  as,  imbibo ,  immineo , 
impleo 

Ob  generally  remains  unaltered.  The  b  is  sometimes  omitted,  as 
in  omitto  ;  or  changed  into  the  first  letter  of  the  simple  verb  :  as, 
offero. 

Re  assumes  d  before  d ,  a  vowel,  or  h :  as,  reddo,  redamo ,  redeo, 
redhibeo.  Pro  likewise  sometimes  takes  a  d,  as  in  prodeo. 

Sub  changes  b  into  the  consonant  of  the  simple,  before  c,  /,  g,  m, 
p,  r:  as,  succedo,  suffero ,  suggero.  Submitto  and  summitto  ;  sxibmo- 
veo,  and  summoveo,  are  both  used. 

Trans  is  generally  contracted  into  tra,  before  d,  j,  n:  as,  trado, 
trajicio,  trano  ;  and  sometimes  before  l  and  m :  as,  traluceo ,  trameo. 
Post  becomes  pos  in  postuli.  Few  if  any  changes  take  place  in  the 
other  prepositions.  Other  prefixes  consist  of  verbs,  as  in  calefacio, 
of  caleo ;  of  adverbs,  as  in  benefacio,  of  bene )  of  participles  and 
adjectives,  as  in  mansuefacio ,  magnifico ,  of  mansuetus  and  magnus ; 
of  substantives,  as  in  significo,  of  signum ;  of  a  preposition  and 
noun,  as  in  animadverto ,  of  ad  and  animus. 


§  81.  LIST  OF  VERBS  IRREGULAR  IN  THE  PRE¬ 
TERITE  AND  SUPINE. 

[Owing  to  the  irregularity  of  many  verbs  in  the  Preterite  and  Supine  in  the 
third  conjugation,  and  of  not  a  few  in  the  other  conjugations  also,  no  rules 
that  could  be  given  would  be  of  much  practical  utility.  The  only  effectual 
way  to  attain  accuracy  and  readiness  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  is  to  commit 
the  primary  parts  or  the  conjugation  accurately  from  the  Dictionary.  To  be 
able  to  do  this  as  soon  as  possible,  is  of  great  importance  to  every  scholar; 
and  it  is  not  a  task  of  so  great  difficulty  as  might  be  supposed.  The  following  list 
contains  all  the  simple  verbs  that  vary  in  the  preterite  and  supine,  from  the 
general  rule.  By  committing  a  portion  of  these  to  memory  every  day,  to  be 
recited  with  the  ordinary  lesson,  and  repeating  this  exercise  in  revisals  till  the 
whole  is  inwrought  into  the  memory,  much  future  labor  will  be  saved;  and 
this  can  be  done  in  a  few  weeks,  without  at  all  interfering  with  the  regular  re« 
citations.  When  the  composition  of  a  verb  changes  its  form,  it  is  noticed  at 
the  foot  of  the  page,  to  which  reference  is  made  by  numbers.! 


156 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES. 


§81 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  have  dvi  in  the 
Perfect,  and  dtum  in  the  Supine  :  as, 

Amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum,  To  love . 

Muto,  mutare,  mutavi,  mutat.um,  To  change. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The  Tenses  of  some  Verbs  included  in  the  lists  of  Exceptions  are 
also  found,  especially  in  the  earliest  authors,  conjugated  according  to 
the  General  Rules.  The  form  here  given  is  that  which  is  in  common 
use. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

Do,1 

dare, 

dedi, 

datum, 

To  give. 

Sto,2 

stare, 

steti, 

statum, 

To  stand. 

LS,vo, 

C lavare. 

lavi, 

f  lotum, 

<  lautum, 

To  wash. 

J  lavere. 

( lava turn, 

Poto, 

potare, 

potavi. 

^  potum,  or 
(  potatum, 

To  drink. 

Juvo,3 4 * 

juvare, 

juvi, 

jutum, 

To  assist. 

Cubo.  * 

cubare, 

cubui, 

domui, 

cubitum, 

To  lie. 

Domo, 

domare, 

domltum, 

To  subdue. 

Sono,6 

sonare, 

sonui, 

sonltom, 

To  sound. 

1  Circumdo,  to  surround;  pessundo,  to  ruin;  satisdo,  to  give  sure* 
ty ;  and  venundo,  to  sell,  are  conjugated  like  do .  The  other  Com¬ 
pounds  belong  to  the  Third  Conjugation,  and  have  dldi  in  the  Perfect, 
and  ditum  in  the  Supine  :  as,  abdo,  abdidi,  abditum ,  abdtre,  to  hide 
reddo ,  reddtdi,  redditum,  to  give  back. 

2  The  Compounds  of  sto  have  stiti  in  the  Perfect,  and  statum  in 
the  Supine:  as,  consto,  constiti,  constatum,  to  stand  together.  Some 
of  the  Compounds  have  occasionally  stitum  in  the  Supine:  as,  prcesto , 
prcesiiti,  prcestitum ,  or  preestdtum,  to  stand  before,  to  excel.  ’  Adsto , 
to  stand  by,  insto,  to  urge  on,  and  resto ,  to  remain  over  and  above, 
have  no  Supine.  Antesto ,  to  stand  before;  circumsto,  to  stand  round; 
instersto,  to  stand  between;  and  supersto,  to  stand  over,  have  sttti,  in 
the  Perfect,  and  the  first  two,  and  probably  the  others  also,  want  the 
Supine.  Disto  to  be  distant,  and  substo  to  stand  under,  have  neithei 
Perfect  nor  Supine. 

3  The  Supine  jutum  is  doubtful,  as  the  Future  Participle  is  juva - 
turns.  Adjilvo  has  adjutum  only,  and  adjuturus. 

4  In  the  same  manner  those  Compounds  are  conjugated  which  do 
not  assume  an  m:  as,  accubo,  to  lie  next  to;  excubo,  to  watch;  in - 

cubo ,  to  lie  upon;  recubo,  to  lie  down  again;  secubo,  to  lie  apart. 
The  Compounds  which  assume  an  m  belong  to  the  Third  Conjuga¬ 
tion,  and  have  ui  and  Itum  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine:  as,  incumbo, 
incubui,  incubitum,  to  lie  upon. 

6  The  Future  Participle  is  sonaturus. 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES. 


157 


$ 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

no,6 

tonare, 

tonui, 

tonltum. 

]'u  thunder. 

Veto,7 

vetare, 

vetui, 

veil  turn, 

To  forbid. 

Crepo,5 

crepare, 

crepui, 

crepltum, 

To  make  a  nona. 

Ml  co, 9 

mica  re, 

micui, 

To  plitler. 

Frico,10 

fricare, 

fricui, 

frictum, 

To  rub. 

Seco, 

secare, 

secui, 

sectum, 

To  cut. 

Neco,11 

necilre, 

^  necavi,  or 

necatum, 

To  kill. 

(  necui. 

Labo, 

labare, 

To  fall ,  or  faint. 

Nexo, 

nexare. 

To  bind. 

Plico,12 

plic  ire, 

To  fold. 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation  have  ui  in  the 
Perfect,  and  itum  in  the  Supine  :  as, 

Moneo,  monere,  monui,  monitum,  To  advise . 

Habeo,1  habere,  habui,  habitum,  To  have. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Iatransitives  which  have  ui  in  the  Perfect,  want  the  Supine  :  as, 
splendeo ,  splendui,  to  shine  ;  mddeo ,  madui,  to  be  wet. 

The  following  Intransitives  have  ui  and  itum,  according  to  the 
general  rule  : 

Caleo,  to  be  hot.  Coaleo,  to  grow  together. 

Careo,  to  want.  Doleo,  to  grieve. 


6  Intono  has  intonaius  in  the  Perfect  Participle. 

7  VZto  has  sometimes  veiavi  in  the  Perfect. 

8  Discrepo,  to  differ,  and  incrSpo,  to  chide,  have  sometimes  avi 
and  atum,  as  well  as  ui  and  itum.  Incrtpo  has  seldom  the  latter  form. 

9  Emico,  to  shine  forth,  has  emicui,  emicatum  •  and  dimico ,  to 
fight,  has  dimicavi  (rarely  dimicui,)  dimicdtum. 

10  Some  of  the  Compounds  of  frico  have  the  Participles  formed 
from  the  regular  Supine  in  atum:  as,  confricatus,  infricatus. 

11  EnZco,  to  kill,  and  internSco,  to  destroy,  have  also  ui  and  ectum: 
the  Participle  of  eneco  is  usually  enectus. 

12  Duplico,  to  double,  multiplico ,  to  multiply:  replico.  to  unfc1  ' 
and  supplico ,  to  entreat  humbly,  have  avi  and  atwn.  The  other 
Compounds  of  plico  have  either  ui  and  itum,  or  avi  and  atum:  as, 
applico,  to  apply,  applicui ,  applicitum,  or  applicavi,  applicatum. 
Explico,  in  the  sense  of  explain,  has  avi  and  atum ;  in  the  sense  of 
unfold,  it  has  ui  and  itum. 

1  The  Compounds  of  habeo  change  a  into  i :  a s,  adhibeo,  adhibui 
adhibitum ,  to  admit ;  prohibeo,  prohibui,  prohibitum ,  to  forbid. 

14 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES.  §  81 


Jaceo  to  lie. 

L&teo  2  to  lie  hid. 
Llceo,  to  be  valued. 
Mereo.  to  deserve. 


Noceo,  to  hurt. 
Pareo,  to  appear. 
Placeo,  to  please. 
Valeo,  to  be  in  health. 


Pres.  Inf. 

Dbceo,  docere, 

Teneo,2 3  tenere, 

Misceo,  miscere, 


Censeo,4  censere, 
Torreo,  torrere, 
Sorbeo,5  sorbere, 
TImeo,  timere, 
SIleo,  silere, 
Arceo.6  arcere, 
Taceo,7  tacere, 
Prandeo,8  prandere, 
Video,  videre, 
Sedeo,9  sedere, 
Strideo,  striuere, 
Frendeo,  frendere, 
Mordeo,10  mordere, 
Pendeo,  pendere, 
Spondeo,  spondere, 
Tondeo,  tondere, 


Perf. 

docui, 

tenui, 

miscui,  | 

censui, 

torrui, 

sorbui, 

timui, 

silui, 

arcui, 

tacui, 

prandi, 

vidi, 

sedi, 

strldi, 

frendi, 

momordi, 

pependi, 

spopondi, 

totondl, 


Sup. 
doctum, 
tenlum, 
mistum,  or 
mixtum, 
censum, 
tostum, 
sorptum, 


taciturn, 

pransum, 

visum, 

sessum, 


fressum, 

niorsum, 

pensum, 

sponsum, 

tonsum, 


To  teach. 

To  hold. 

To  mix. 

T o  think  ,to  judge 
To  roast. 

To  sup. 

To  fear. 

To  be  silent. 

To  drive  away. 

To  be  silent. 

To  dine. 

To  see. 

To  sit. 

To  make  a  noise. 
To  gnash  the  teeth , 
To  bite. 

To  hang. 

T o  promise. 

To  clip. 


2  The  Compounds  of  lateo  want  the  Supine  :  as,  deliteo.  dclituiy 
to  lurk ;  perlateo,  perlatui,  to  lie  hid. 

3  The  Compounds  of  ttneo  change  c  into  i:  as  contineo ,  continui, 
contentum,  to  hold  together.  Ttttineo,  to  hold  ;  and  per  tin  eo,  to  be¬ 
long  to,  have  no  Supine  ;  and  abstineo ,  to  abstain  from,  seldom. 

4  Censeo  has  also  census  sum  in  the  Perfect,  and  censitum  in  the 

Supine,  Accenseo.  to  reckon  with,  and  percenseo,  to  recount,  want 
the  Supine  ;  and  recenseo ,  to  review,  has  recensum,  and  recensitum. 

6  Absorbeo ,  to  sup  up,  and  exsorbeo,  to  sup  out,  have  sometimes 
absorpsi,  and  exsorpsi  in  the  Perfect.  The  latter,  with  resorbco,  to 
draw  back,  has  no  Supine. 

6  The  Compounds  of  arceo  have  itum  in  the  Supine  :  as,  exerceo , 
exercui,  exercitum,  to  exercise. 

7  The  Compounds  of  tdceo  want  the  Supine  :  as,  conticeo,  conti' 

to  keep  silence  ;  reticeo ,  reticui,  to  remain  silent,  to  conceal. 

8  The  Participle  pransus  is  used  in  the  Active  sense  of  having  dined, 

9  Desideo,  to  sit  idle,  dissideo ,  to  disagree ,  persidco ,  to  continue, 
prcesideo,  to  sit  before,  resideo,  to  sit  down,  to  rest,  and  subsideo,  to 
subside,  want  the  Supine. 

10  The  Compounds  of  mordeo ,  pendeo ,  spondeo,  and  tondeo,  do  not 
double  the  first  syllable  of  the  Perfect.  See  Rule  2,  §  80.  Im • 
pendeo  to  overhang,  has  no  Perfect  or  Supine. 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES . 


Pres. 

Moveo,11 

Foveo, 

Voveo, 

Fa  veo, 

C&veo, 

Paveo, 

Ferveo,12 

Conniveo, 

Deleo, 

Compleo,13 

Fleo. 

Neo, 

Vieo, 

Cieo,14 

Oleo,15 

Suadeo, 

Rldeo, 

Maneo, 

Haereo, 

Ardeo, 

Tergeo, 

Mulceo, 

Mulgeo, 

Jubeo, 

Indulgeo, 

Torqueo, 

Augeo, 

Urgeo, 

Fulgeo, 

Turgeo, 


Inf. 

movere, 

fovere, 

vovere, 

favere, 

cavere, 

pavere, 

fervere, 

connivere, 

delere, 

complere, 

here, 

nere, 

viere, 

ciere, 

olere, 

suadere, 

ridere, 

manere, 

hserere, 

ardere, 

tergere, 

mulcere, 

mulgere, 

jubere, 

indulgere, 

torquere, 

augere, 

urgere, 

fulgere, 

turgere, 


Perf. 

movi, 

fovi, 

vovi, 

favi, 

cavi, 

pavi, 

l'erbui, 

connlvi  or 

delevi, 

complevi, 

flevi, 

nevi, 

vievi, 

(clvi,) 

olui, 

suasi, 

risi, 

mansi, 

heesi, 

arsi, 

tersi, 

mulsi, 

mulsi, 

jussi,  _ 

indulsi, 

torsi, 

auxi, 

ursi, 

falsi, 

tursi, 


Sup. 

m5tum, 

fotum, 

votum, 

fautum, 

cautum, 


delelum, 

completum, 

fletum, 

netum, 

vietum, 

cl  turn , 

(olltum,) 

suasum, 

rlsum, 

mansum, 

hsesum, 

arsum, 

tersura, 

malsum, 

malsum,  or 

mulctum, 

jussum, 

indultunij 

tortum, 

auctum, 


15Q 


To  move 
To  cherish. 

To  vow. 

T  o  f avour . 

To  beware  of. 
To  be  afraid. 
To  boil. 

To  wink. 

To  destroy. 

To  fill. 

To  weep. 

To  spin.  [ sel . 
T o  hoop  a  ves- 
To  stir  up. 

To  smell. 

To  advise. 

To  laugh. 

To  stay. 

To  stick. 

To  burn. 

To  wipe. 

To  stroke. 

To  milk. 

To  order . 

To  indulge. 
To  twist. 

To  increase. 
To  press. 

To  shine. 

To  swell. 


11  Verbs  in  veo  undergo  a  contraction  in  the  Supine.  Neuter 
Verbs  in  veo  want  the  Supine:  as,  paveo  .pavi,  to  be  afraid. 

12  Fervo,  fervi,  another  form  of  this  Verb  belonging  to  the  Third 
Conjugation,  is  used  in  a  few  persons,  and  in  the  Present  Infinitive. 

13  The  other  Compounds  of  the  obsolete  Verb  pleo  are  conjugated 
in  the  same  way:  as,  expleo,  impleo,  repleo,  suppleo. 

14  Clvi  is  the  Perfect  of  cio  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  having 
cltum  in  the  Supine.  The  Compounds,  in  the  sense  of  calling ,  are 
generally  conjugated  according  to  this  form:  as  excio,  excltum. 

15  The  Compounds  of  oleo  which  retain  the  sense  of  the  Simple 
Verb  have  ui  and  itum:  as,  obbleo  obolui,  obolitum,  to  smell  strong¬ 
ly.  The  Compounds  which  adopt  a  different  signification  have  evi 
and  Hum:  as,  exoleo ,  exolevi ,  exoletum ,  to  fade;  obsoleo ,  obsolevi, 
obsoletum,  to  grow  out  of  use;  inoleo,  inolevi,  inoletum,  or  inolitumt 
to  come  into  use.  Abbleo ,  to  abolish,  has  abolevi,  abolitum;  and 
adoleo ,  to  grow  up,  to  burn,  has  adolevi ,  adultum. 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES. 


§8) 


160 


Algeo,  algere,  alsi, 

Liigeo,  lugere,  luxi, 

Luceo,  lucere,  luxi, 

Frigeo,  ffigere,  frixi, 


To  be  cold. 
To  mourn. 
To  shine. 
To  be  cold. 


The  following  Verbs  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine: 


Aveo,  to  desire. 
JDenseo,  to  grow  thick. 
Flaveo,  to  be  yellow. 
Glabreo,  to  be  smooth. 
Hebeo,  to  be  blunt. 
Lacteo,  to  grow  milky. 


Llveo,  to  be  black  and  blue. 
Moereo,  to  be  sorrowful. 
Renideo,  to  shine. 

Polleo,  to  be  powerful. 
Scateo,  to  fiow  out. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the  Perfect  and  Su¬ 
pine  variously. 

10. 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

F&cio,1 

facere, 

feci, 

jeci, 

factum, 

jactum, 

To  do,  to  make 

Jacio,2 

jacere, 

To  throw. 

Asplcio,3 

aspicere, 

aspexi, 

aspectum, 

To  behold. 

Allicio, 

allicere, 

allexi, 

allectum, 

To  allure. 

Fodio, 

fodere, 

fodi, 

fossum, 

fugltum, 

To  dig. 

Fugio, 

fugere, 

fQ?b 

Toffy. 

Capio,4 * 

capere, 

cepi, 

captum, 

To  take. 

Rapio, 

rapere, 

rapui, 

raptum, 

To  seize 

Sapio, 

sapere, 

sapui, 

To  taste ,  to  be  wise . 

Cupio, 

cupere, 

cupfvi, 

cupltum, 

To  desire. 

Pario,6 

parere, 

peperi, 

S  partum,  or 
l  paritum. 

To  bring  forth. 

1  Fdcio ,  when  compounded  with  a  Preposition,  changes  a  into  i: 
as,  afficio,  affeci ,  affectum,  to  affect.  In  the  other  Compounds  the  a 
is  retained.  A  few  Compounds  end  in  f  ico,  and  ficor,  and  belong  to 
the  First  Conjugation:  as,  amplifico,  to  enlarge;  sacrifico,  to  sacri¬ 
fice:  gratificor,  to  gratify;  and  ludificor ,  to  mock. 

2  The  Compounds  of  jacio,  change  a  into  i:  as  abjicio,  abjeci ,  ab - 
jectum. 

3  The  Compounds  of  the  obsolete  Verbs  sptcio,  and  lacio,  have 
exi,  and  ectum;  except  elicio,  to  draw  out,  which  has  elicui,  and  elU 
citum. 

4  The  Compounds  of  capio,  rapio,  and  sdpio,  change  a  into  i:  as, 

accipio, accept,  acceptum,  to  receive;  abripio,  abripui,  abreptum ,  to 
carry  off;  consipio,  consipui,  to  be  in  one’s  senses. 

6  The  Compounds  of  pario  have  perui  and  pertum,  and  belong  to 
the  Fourth  Conjugation:  as,  aptrio,  aperire ,  aperui,  apertum ,  to 
open.  So  optrio,  to  shut,  to  cover.  But  comperio,  (which  also  has  a 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES 


161 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Supine. 

Quatio,6 

quatere, 

(quassi,) 

quassum, 

To  shake. 

Acuo, 

acuere, 

UO 

acui, 

. 

acutum, 

To  sharpen. 

Arguo, 

arguere, 

argui, 

argutum, 

To  show ,  ioprovi 

Batuo, 

batuere, 

batui, 

batutum, 

To  beat. 

Exuo, 

exuere, 

exui, 

exutum, 

To  put  off  clothes. 

Imbuo, 

imbuere, 

imbui, 

imbutum, 

To  moisten,  to  wet 

Induo, 

induere, 

indui, 

indutum, 

To  put  on  clothes. 

Minuo, 

minuere, 

minui, 

minutum, 

To  lessen. 

Spuo,7 

spu§re, 

spui, 

sputum, 

To  spit. 

Statuo, 

statuere, 

statui, 

statu  turn, 

To  set,  to  place. 

Sternuo, 

sternuere, 

sternui, 

sternutum, 

To  sneeze. 

Suo, 

suere, 

sui, 

su  turn, 

To  sew,  to  stitch. 

Tribuo, 

tribuere, 

tribui, 

tributum, 

To  give,  to  divide. 
To  flow. 

Fluo, 

fluere, 

fluxi, 

fluxum, 

Struo, 

struere, 

struxi, 

struclum, 

luitum, 

To  build. 

Luo,8 

lucre, 

lui, 

rui, 

To  pay,  to  wash . 

Ruo,9 

ruere, 

ruitum, 

To  rush ,  to  fall. 

Metuo, 

metuere, 

metui, 

plui, 

To  fear. 

To  rain. 

Pluo, 

pluere, 

Congruo, 

congruere, 

congrui, 

To  agree. 

Ingruo, 

ingruere, 

ingrui, 

To  assail. 

Annuo,10 

annuere, 

annul, 

To  assent. 

Bibo, 

bibere, 

BO. 

bibi, 

bibitum, 

To  drink. 

Scabo, 

scabere, 

scabi, 

To  scratch. 

Lambo, 

lambere, 

Iambi, 

To  lick. 

Scrlbo, 

scribere, 

scripsi. 

scriptum, 

To  write.  [ ried . 

Nubo,11 

nubere, 

glubere, 

nupsi, 

nuptum, 

To  veil,  to  bemar~ 

Glubo, 

To  strip,  to  flay. 

Deponent  form  in  the  Present  Indicative  and  Infinitive,  comperior , 
comperiri ,)  to  know  a  thing  for  certain,  has  compSri ,  compertum  ; 
and  repSrio ,  to  find,  has  repcri,  repertum. 

6  The  Compounds  of  quatio  take  the  form  cutio,  and  have  cussi 
and  cussum :  as,  concutio,  to  shake  violently,  concussi ,  concussum. 


7  Respao,  to  spit  out,  to  reject,  has  no  Supine. 

8  The  Compounds  of  luo  haVe  utum  in  the  Supine  :  as,  ab.uo , 
ablui,  abliitum,  to  wash  away.,  to  purify. 

9  The  Compounds  of  ruo  have  utum  iu  the  Supine:  as,  diruo, 
dirui ,  dirutum,  to  overthrow.  Corruo,  to  fall  together,  and  irruo , 
to  rush  in  furiously,  have  no  Supine. 

10  The  other  Compounds  of  the  obsolete  nuo,  as  abnuo,  to  refuse  ; 
innuo,  to  nod  with  the  head  ;  and  renuo ,  to  deny,  likewise  want  the 
Supine.  Abnuiturus ,  Fut.  Participle  from  abnuo ,  is  found. 


11  Nupta  sum ,  another  form  of  the  Perfect,  is  sometimes  used  in 
stead  of  nupsi. 

14* 


162 


Pres . 

Dico, 

Duco, 

Vinco, 

Parco,12 

Ico, 

Cresco, 


Nosco,13 

Quiesco, 

Scisco, 

Suesco, 

Pasco,14 

Disco, 

Posco, 

Glisco.15 


Accendo, 

Cudo, 

Deiendo, 

Edo,16 

Mando, 

Prehendo, 

Scando, 

Divido, 

Rado, 

Claudo,!? 

Plaudo,  18 

Ludo, 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES. 


§81 


Inf. 

dicere, 

ducere, 

vincere, 

parcere, 

icere, 


Perf. 

dixi, 

duxi, 

vlci, 

peperci,  or 

parsi. 

ici. 


CO. 

Supine. 
dictum, 


ductum, 
victum, 

£  parsura,  or 
(  parcltum, 
ictum, 


To  say. 

To  lead. 

To  overcome. 

To  spare. 

To  strike. 


crescere, 

crevi, 

cretum, 

SCO. 

To  grow. 

noscere, 

novi, 

notum, 

To  know. 

quiescere, 

quievi, 

quietum, 

To  rest. 

sciscere, 

sclvi, 

scl  turn, 

To  ordain. 

suescere, 

suevi, 

suetum, 

To  be  accustomed, 

pascere, 

discere, 

pavi, 

didxci. 

pastum, 

To  feed. 

To  learn. 

poscere. 

poposci 

To  demand- 

gliscere, 


accendere, 

cudere, 

defendere, 

edere, 

mandere, 

prehendere, 

scandere, 

dividere. 

radere, 

claudere, 

plaudere, 

Iudere, 


To  glitter,  to  grow. 


DO. 


accendi, 

accensum, 

To  kindle. 

cudi, 

cusum, 

T  o  forge. 

defendi, 

defensum, 

To  defend. 

edi, 

esum, 

To  eat. 

mandi, 

prehendi, 

mansum, 

To  chew. 

prehensum, 

To  take  hold  of. 

scandi, 

divisi, 

scansum, 

divlsum, 

To  climb. 

To  divide. 

rasi, 

rasum, 

To  shave. 

clausi, 

clausum, 

To  close. 

plausi, 

plausum, 

To  applaud. 

lusi, 

lusum, 

To  play. 

12  The  form  parsi  and  parcltum  is  seldom  used. 

13  The  Fut.  Part,  is  nosciturus  from  noscitum,  the  old  form  of  the 
Supine.  Agnosco ,  to  own,  has  agnovi,  agnitum ;  and  cognosco ,  to 
know,  has  cognovi,  cognitum. 

14  Compesco ,  to  feed  together,  to  restrain  ;  and  dispesco,  to  sepa¬ 
rate,  have  compescui,  and  dispescui ,  without  the  Supine. 

15  Futisco,  to  be  weary,  likewise  wants  both  Perfect  and  Supine  : 
md  also  all  Inceptive  Verbs,  unless  when  they  adopt  the  Tenses  of 
their  Primitives  :  as,  ardesco ;  to  grow  hot,  arsi,  arsum.  §  88.  Obs.  4, 

16  All  the  Compounds  of  &do  are  conjugated  in  the  same  manner 
except  comedo,  to  eat  up,  which  has  comesum,  or  comestum  in  the 
Supine.  See  83.  9. 

17  The  Compounds  of  claudo  change  an  into  u:  as,  concludo,  con - 
clusi,  conclusum ,  to  conclude.  Circumclaudo  is  found  in  Caesar. 

18  The  Compounds  of  plaudo ,  except  ap -  and  circum-plaudo , 
change  au  into  o :  as,  explodo ,  explosi,  expldsum,  to  reject. 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES. 


163 


§  81 


Pres 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Trudo, 

trudere, 

lcedere, 

trusi, 

Laedo,  19 

lacsi, 

Rodo, 

Vado,29 

rodere, 

vadere, 

cedere, 

rosi, 

Cedo, 

cessi, 

Pando, 

pandere, 

pandi, 

Fundo, 

fundere, 

scindere, 

fudi, 

scidi, 

Scindo, 

Findo, 

findere, 

f  Idi, 

Tundo,21 

tundere, 

tutudi, 

Cado,22 

cadere, 

cecldi, 

Caedo',23 

ceedere, 

cecldi, 

Tendo,24 

lendere, 

tetenii, 

Pendo, 

pendere, 

pependi, 

Credo,  25 

credere, 

credidi, 

Vendo, 

vendere, 

vendidi, 

Abscondo/ 

abscondere,abscondi, 

Strido, 

stridere, 

strldi, 

Rudo, 

rudere, 

rudi, 

SIdo,26 

sidere, 

sldi, 

Cingo, 

cingere, 

cinxi, 

Sup. 

trusum,  To  thrust. 

laesum,  To  hurt. 

rosum,  To  gnaw. 

-  To  go. 

cessum,  To  yield. 

passum,  or  rn 

’  To  open. 

pansum,  F 

fusum,  To  pour  forth. 

scissum,  To  cut. 

fissurn,  To  cleave. 

tunsum,  or  y 

tusum, 

c:lsum,  To  fall: 

cassum,  To  cutfokill. 


pensum,  To  hang. 

credltum,  To  believe. 

vendltum,  To  sell. 

absconditum,  To  hide. 

-  To  creak , 

* -  To  bray  as  an  ass. 

-  To  sink  down. 


cinctum,  To  surround. 


19  The  Compounds  of  Icedo  change  ce  into  i:  as,  allido ,  allisi,  alii - 
sum,  to  dash  against. 

20  The  Compounds  of  vado  have  the  Perfect  and  Supine  :  as, 
evddo,  evdsi ,  evdsum ,  to  escape. 

21  The  Compounds  of  tundo  have  tudi,  and  tusum:  as,  contundo , 
to  bruise,  contudi,  contiisum.  See  §  80,  Rule  2.  Some  of  the 
Compounds  have  also,  a  Perfect  Participle  formed  from  tunsum :  as, 
obtunsus,  and  retunsus,  from  obtundo,  and  reiundo. 

22  The  Compounds  of  cddo,  want  the  Supine  :  as,  accido,  accidi,  to 
happen;  except  incido ,incidi,  incdsum,  to  fall  in;  occido ,  occidi ,  oc- 
cdsurn,  to  fall  down;  and  recido,  recidi ,  recasum,  to  fall  back. 

23  The  Compounds  of  ca>do,  change  ce  into  i :  as,  accido,  accidi , 
acdsum,  to  cut  about;  decido,  decidi,  decisum ,  to  cut  off. 

24  The  Compounds  of  tendo  have  generally  tentum  in  the  Supine, 
except  extendo,  to  stretch  out,  and  ostendo,  to  show,  which  have  also 
tensum;  the  latter,  almost  always. 

25  The  other  Compounds  of  do  which  belong  to  the  Third  Conju- 
gation  have  also  didi,  and  ditum :  as,  condo ,  condidi,  conditum ,  to 
build.  Abscondo  has  sometimes  abscondidi.  See  page  156,  Note  1. 

26  The  Compounds  of  sido,  adopt  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  sede>0' 
as,  consido,  consedi,  consessum,  to  sit  down, 


164  PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES.  §  81 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

FlIgo,26 

fligere, 

fiixi, 

flictum, 

To  dash. 

Jungo, 

jungere, 

junxi, 

junctum, 

To  join. 

Lingo, 

lingere, 

linxi, 

linctum, 

To  lick. 

Mungo, 

mungere, 

munxi, 

munctum, 

To  wipe  the  nose. 

Pl?.i)gO, 

plangere, 

planxi, 

planctum, 

To  beat. 

Rego,27, 

regere, 

rexi, 

rectum, 

To  rule. 

Stinguo,28 

stinguere, 

stinxi, 

stinctum, 

To  dash  out. 

Sago, 

sugere, 

suxi, 

suctum, 

To  suck. 

Tego, 

tegere, 

texi, 

tectum, 

To  cover. 

Tinguo, 

tinguere, 

tinxi, 

tinctum, 

To  dip. 

Lnguo, 

unguere, 

unxi, 

unctum, 

To  anoint. 

Surgo, 

surgere, 

surrexi, 

surrectum, 

To  rise. 

Pergo, 

pergere, 

perrexi, 

perrectum, 

Togo  forward 

Stringo, 

stringere, 

strinxi, 

strictum, 

To  bind. 

Fingo, 

fingere, 

finxi, 

fictum, 

To  feign. 

Pingo, 

pingere, 

pinxi, 

pictum, 

To  paint. 

Frango,29, 

frangere, 

fregi, 

fr  actum, 

To  break. 

Ago,30 

agere, 

egi,  . 

actum, 

To  do, to  drive 

Tango, 

tangere, 

tetigi, 

tactum , 

To  touch. 

Lego,31 

legere, 

legi, 

lectum,  To  gather ,  to  read 

Pungo,32 

pungere, 

pupugi, 

punctum, 

To  prick. 

Pango,33 

pangere, 

panxi, 

pactum, 

To  drive  in. 

26  The  Compounds  of  fligo  are  conjugated  in  the  same  way,  except 
proJUgo,  to  dash  down,  which  is  a  regular  Verb  of  the  First  Conju¬ 
gation. 

27  The  Compounds  of  rZgo  change  e  into  i:  as,  dirigo,  direxi, di¬ 
rectum,  to  direct;  corrigo ,  correxi ,  correctum ,  to  correct. 

28  Stinguo,  tinguo,  and  unguo,  are  also  written  stingo ,  tingo ,  ungo. 

29  The  Compounds  of  frango  and  tango  change  a  into  i:  as,  con - 
fringo,  confregi,  confractum,  to  break  to  pieces;  attingo,  attlgi ,  at - 
tactum ,  to  touch  gently. 

30  Circumdgo,  to  drive  round;  perdgo,  to  finish;  and  Congo,  (con¬ 
tracted  cogo ,)  to  collect,  retain  the  a;  the  other  Compounds  change  a 
into  i:  as,  abigo,  abegi,  abactum ,  to  drive  away.  Dtgo  (for  deago,)  to 
live,  to  dwell;  prodigo,  to  lavish  or  squander;  and  satdgo,  to  be  busy, 
want  the  Supine.  Ambigo,  to  doubt,  has  neither  Perfect  nor  Supine. 

31  Lego,  when  compounded  with  ad,  per,  prce,  re,  and  sab,  retains 
the  e;as,  allego,  to  choose.  The  other  Compounds  change  e  into  i: 
as,  colligo ,  to  collect.  Diligo,  to  love;  inteliigo,  to  understand,  and 
negligo,  to  neglect,  have,  exi  and  ectum.  Negligo  has  sometimes 
regie gi  in  the  Perfect. 

32  The  Compounds  of  pungo  have  punxi  in  the  Perfect :  as  com - 
pungo,  to  sting,  compunxi,  compunctum.  Repungo,  to  prick  again, 
has  repupugi ,  and  repunxi. 

33  Pango,  in  the  sense  of  to  bargain  has  pepigi;  the  Present  is 
rarely  used  in  this  meaning;  but  instead  of  it  paciscor  is  commonly 
employed.  The  Compounds  which  change  a  into  i  have  pegi,  and 
•pactum:  as,  compingo,  to  fasten  together,  compegi ,  compactum.  Op 


§  81  PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES.  165 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Supine. 

Spargo,"4 

Mergo, 

Tergo, 

FIgo, 

Frigo, 

Vergo, 

Clango, 

Ningo. 

Ango, 

spargere, 
mergere, 
tergere,  ' 
figere, 

frige  re, 

vergere, 

clangere, 

ningere, 

angere, 

sparsi, 

mersi, 

tersi, 

fixi, 

frixi,  | 

sparsum, 

mersum, 

tersum, 

fixum, 

frixum,  or 

frictum, 

To  spread. 

To  dip,  to  plunge 
To  wipe. 

To  fix. 

To  fry. 

To  lie  toward. 

To  sound  a  trum • 
To  snow.  [pci. 
To  vex. 

clanxi, 

ninxi, 

anxi, 

HO. 

Tr3.ho, 

V6ho, 

Me  jo, 35 

trahere, 

vehere, 

mejere, 

traxi, 

vexi, 

minxi, 

tractum, 

vectum, 

mictum, 

To  draw. 

To  carry. 

To  make  water. 

LO. 

Colo,3® 

Consulo, 

Alo, 

Molo, 

Antecello,37 

Pello, 

Fallo,38 

Velio, 39 

Sallo, 

Psallo, 

Tollo,4® 

colere, 

consulere, 

alere, 

molere, 

antecellere, 

pellere, 

failere, 

vellere, 

sallere, 

psallere, 

tollere, 

colui, 

consului, 

alui,  | 

molui, 

antecellui, 

pepuli, 

fefelli, 

velli,  or  vulsi. 
salli, 
psalli, 
sustuli, 

cultum, 
consultum, 
i  alitum,  or 
[  altum, 
moll  turn, 

To  till,  to  inhabit 
To  consult. 

To  nourish. 

To  grind. 

To  excel. 

To  drive  away • 
To  deceive. 

To  pull. 

To  salt.[  strument. 
To  pi  ay  on  an  in* 
To  lift  up. 

pulsum, 

falsum, 

,  vulsum, 
salsum, 

sublatum, 

pango,  to  fasten  to,  has  also  pegi  and  pactum.  Of  the  other  Com¬ 
pounds  which  retain  a,  the  Perfect  and  Supine  are  not  found. 

34  The  Compounds  of  spar  go  change  a  into  e  :  as,  aspergo ,  asper - 
si,  aspersum. ,  to  besprinkle. 

35  Mingo  is  also  used  as  the  Present  of  minxi. 

36  Colo,  when  compounded  with  ob,  changes  o,  into  u :  occUlo,  to 
hide.  Accolo,  to  dwell  near,  and  circumcblo ,  to  dwell  round,  have 
no  Supine. 

37  The  other  Compounds  of  the  obsolete  cello  likewise  want  the 
Supine  ;  except  percello,  perculi,  perculsum,  to  strike,  to  astonish. 
Recello  likewise  wants  the  Perfect. 

38  Refello,  refelli,  to  confute,  wants  the  Supine. 

38  Velio ,  when  compounded  with  de,  di,  or  per,  has  usually  velix 
in  the  Perfect.  The  other  Compounds  take  either  form  indifferently. 

40  Attollo  an  l  enlollo,  1o  raise  up,  have  no  Perfect  or  Supine  of 
'heir  own  ;  but  those  of  aff'ro  an  1  cff'  ro,  which  agree  with  them  in 
.weaning,  are  sometimes  assigned  to  them 


166 

PRETERITES  AND 

SUPINES. 

iO» 

00 

Pres 

Fremo, 

Inf. 

fremere, 

MO. 

Perf. 

fremui, 

Sup. 

fremltum, 

To  rage,  to  roar 

Gemo, 

gemere, 

gemui, 

gemltum, 

To  groan. 

V<5mo, 

vomere, 

vomui, 

vomltum, 

To  vomit. 

Tremo, 

Demo, 

tremere, 

demere, 

tremui, 

dempsi, 

demplum, 

To  tremble. 

To  take  away. 

Promo, 

promere, 

prompsi, 

promptum, 

To  bring  out. 

Sumo, 

sumere, 

sumpsi, 

sumptum, 

To  take. 

Como. 

Emo,41 

comSre, 

compsi, 

comptum, 

To  deck ,  todreu 

emere, 

emi, 

emptum, 

To  buy. 

Premo,42 

premere, 

pressi, 

pressum, 

To  press. 

Pono, 

ponere, 

NO. 

pfisui, 

posltum, 

To  place. 

Gigno, 

gignere, 

genui, 

genltum, 

To  beget. 

Cano,43 

canere, 

ceclni, 

cantum, 

To  sing. 

Temno,44 

Sperno, 

temnere, 

spernere, 

sprevi, 

spretum, 

To  despise. 

To  disdain 

Sterno,45 

sternere, 

stravi, 

stratum, 

To  lay  fat 

Sino, 

sinere, 

sivi,  or  sii, 

si  turn, 

To  permit. 

Lino, 

linere, 

llvi,  or  levi, 

lltum, 

To  anoint. 

Cerno,46 

cernere, 

crevi, 

cretum, 

To  see.  to  decret 

Carpo,47 

carpere, 

clep6re, 

PO,  QUO. 

carpsi,  carptum, 

To  pluck. 

Clepo, 

clepsi, 

cleptum, 

To  steal. 

Repo, 

repere, 

scalpere, 

repsi, 

reptum, 

To  creep. 

Scalpo, 

scalpsi, 

scalptum, 

To  engrave. 

Sculpo, 

sculpere, 

sculpsi, 

sculptum, 

To  carve. 

Serpo, 

serpere, 

serpsi, 

serptum, 

To  creep. 

41  Demo ,  promo,  and  sumo,  are  Compounds  of  emo.  The  other 
Compounds  change  e  into  i,  and  are  conjugated  like  the  Simple  Verb  : 
<»s,  adimo ,  ademi,  ademptum,  to  take  away. 

42  The  Compounds  of  prtmo  change  e  into  i  :  as,  comprimo,  com • 
pressi ,  compressum,  to  press  together. 

43  The  Compounds  of  cano  have  cinui,  and  centum  ;  as,  concino, 
concinui,  concentum ,  to  sing  in  concert.  Of  accino,  to  sing  to,  and 
intercino,  to  sing  between,  or  during,  no  Perfect  or  Supine  is  found. 

44  Contemno ,  to  despise,  has  contempsi,  contemptum. 

46  Consterno  and  externo,  when  they  signify  to  alarm,  are  regular 
Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation.  The  other  Compounds  are  conju¬ 
gated  like  sterno :  as,  insierno ,  instravi,  instratum,  to  spread  upon. 

46  The  Perfect  crevi  is  used  in  the  sense  of  to  declare  one's  self 
heir,  or  enter  on  an  inheritance.  In  the  sense  of  seeing,  cerno  has 
properly  neither  Perfect  nor  Supine. 

47  The  Compounds  of  carpo  change  a  into  e:  as,  discerpo  di» 
cerpsi ,  discerptum ,  to  tear  in  pieces. 


PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES.  167 


Pres. 

Strepo, 

Rumpo, 

Coquo, 

Linquo,48 


Queero,49 

Tero, 

Verro, 

Uro, 

Curro,50 

Gero, 

Furo,61 

Sero  ,62 


Arcesso, 

Capesso, 

Facesso, 

Lacesso, 

Viso, 

Incesso, 

Depso, 

Pinso, 


FlectOj 

Plecto, 

Necto, 

Pecto, 

Meto, 

Peto, 


Inf. 

Perf. 

strepere, 

strepui, 

rumpere, 

rupi, 

coquere, 

coxi, 

linquere, 

liqui, 

RO 

q  u  oarer  e, 

quosslvi, 

terere, 

trivi , 

verrere, 

verri, 

urere, 

ussi, 

currere, 

cucurri, 

gerere, 

gessi, 

furere, 

serere, 

sevi, 

SO, 

arcessere, 

arcessivi, 

capessere, 

facessere, 

lacessere, 

capessivi, 

facessivi, 

lacessivi, 

visere, 

visi, 

incessere, 

incessi, 

depsere, 

depsui, 

pinsere, 

$  pinsui,  or 
(  pinsi, 

Sup. 

strepitum, 

To  make  a  noun* 

ruptum, 

To  break 

coctum, 

To  boil . 

- - 

To  leave. 

quoesltum, 

To  seek. 

trltum, 

To  wear. 

versum, 

To  sweep. 

ustum, 

To  burn. 

cursum, 

To  run. 

gestum, 

To  carry. 
To  be  mad. 

satum, 

To  sow. 

arcessltum, 

To  call,  or  send 

capessitum, 

To  take.  [for. 

facessitum, 

To  do,  go  away. 

lacessltum, 

To  provoke. 

To  go  to  visit. 
To  attack. 

depstum, 

pinsum, 

To  knead. 

pistum,  or 
pinsltum, 

To  bake. 

TO. 


flectere, 

plectere, 

nectere, 

pectere, 

metere, 

petere, 


flexi,  flexum, 

plexi&plexui.  plexum, 
nexi  &  nexui,  nexum, 
pexi  &  pexui,  pexum, 
messui,  messum, 

petivi,  petitum, 


To  bend. 

To  plait. 

To  tie  or  knit. 
To  dress,  or 
To  reap.  [comb. 
To  seek. 


43  The  Compounds  of  linquo  have  lictum  in  the  Supine  :  as,  relin - 
quo,  reliqui,  relictum,  to  forsake  ;  so  delinquo,  to  fail, 

49  The  Compounds  of  qucero  change  ce  into  i:  as,  acquiro,  acqui 
slvi,  acquisitum,  to  acquire. 

60  Curro,  when  compounded  with  circum,  re,  sub,  and  trans ,  sel 
dom  takes  the  reduplication.  The  other  Compounds  sometimes  take 
the  reduplication,  and  sometimes  not. 

61  See  §  84.  4. 

62  The  Compounds  of  sZro  which  retain  the  sense  of  planting  and 
sowing,  have  scvi  and  situm:  as,  cons&ro,  consevi,  consitum,  to  plant 
together.  Those  which  adopt  a  different  signification  have  serui  and 
serlum:  as,  assZro,  asserui,  assertum,  to  claim.  The  latter  class  of 
Compounds  properly  belongs  to  the  old  verb  sero,  to  knit,  to  plait 


168  PRETERITES  AND  SUPINES.  §  81 


Vre3. 

Inf . 

Per/. 

Sup . 

Mitto 

mittere, 

misi, 

missum, 

versum, 

To  send. 

Verto,53 

vertere, 

verti, 

To  turn. 

Sterto, 

stcrtere. 

stertui, 

To  snore . 

Sisto,64 

sistere, 

stiti, 

VO, 

statum, 

XO. 

To  stop. 

Vivo, 

vivSre, 

vixi, 

solvi, 

volvi, 

victum, 

To  live. 

Solvo, 

solvere, 

solutum, 

To  lose. 

Volvo, 

volvere, 

volutum, 

To  roll. 

Texo, 

texere, 

texui, 

textum, 

To  weave. 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION 

Rule. — Verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  have  ivi  in  the 
Perfect,  and  itum  in  the  Supine  :  as, 


Pres. 

Inf. 

Perf. 

Sup. 

Audio, 

audlre, 

audivi, 

munivi, 

auditum, 

To  hear. 

Munio, 

munlre, 

muni  turn, 

To  fortify 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Singultio, 

singultire, 

singultlvi, 

singultum, 

To  sob. 

Sepelio, 

sepellre, 

sepelivi, 

sepultum, 

To  bury. 

Venio, 

venire, 

veni, 

ventum, 

To  come. 

Veneo,* 1 

venire 

venii, 

salui,  or  salii, 

To  be  sold. 

Salio,2 

salire, 

saltum, 

To  leap. 

Amlcio, 

amiclre, 

S  amicui,  or 

amictum, 

To  clothe. 

(  amixi, 

Vincio, 

vincire, 

vinxi, 

vinctum, 

To  tie. 

Sancio, 

sanclre, 

^  sanxi,  or  5 
(  sancivi,  ( 

campsi, 

sanctum,  or 
sancitum, 

To  ratify. 

Cambio, 

cambire, 

campsum, 

To  change  mo 

Sepio, 

sepire, 

sepsi, 

septum, 

To  enclose,  [ney 

Haurio, 

haurire, 

hausi,  | 

liaustum,  or 
hausum, 

To  draw  out. 

Sentio, 

sentire, 

sensi, 

sensum, 

To  feel. 

Raucio, 

raucire, 

rausi, 

rausum, 

To  be  hoarse. 

Sarcio, 

sarcire, 

sarsi, 

sartum, 

To  mend ,  or  re- 

[pair. 


53  The  Compounds  of  verto  are  conjugated  in  the  same  manner, 
except  revertor,  to  return,  which  is  often  used  as  a  Deponent  Verb} 
and  divertor  to  turn  aside,  and  prcevertor,  to  outrun,  which  are  like* 
wise  Deponent,  but  want  the  Perfect  Participle. 

54  Sisto,  to  stand  still  (a  neuter  ^erb,)  has  neither  Perfect  nor  Su¬ 
pine.  The  Compounds  hare  stiti,  and  stitum:  as,  assisto,  astiti,  as - 
titum,  to  stand  by.  But  these  are  seldom  found  in  Hie  Supine. 

1  For  the  Conjugation  of  veneo,  see  page  173. 

2  The  Compounds  of  sallo  have  generally  silui,  sometimes  silii,  or 
silivi ,  in  the  Perfect,  and  sultum  in  the  Supine:  as,  transilio,  transit 
lui,  transitu,  or  transilivi ,  transultum,  to  leap  over,  jdbsultum ,  cir 
cumsultuh >,  and  prosultum ,  are  scarcely  used. 


DEPONENT  PARTICIPLES. 


169 


§  H2 


Farcio,v  farclre,  farsi,  far  turn, 

Fulcio,  fulclre,  falsi,  fultum, 

Ferio,  ferlre,  -  - 


To  cram. 
To  prop. 
To  strike. 


The  fo.t  t  Gng  Verbs  have  the  Perfect  formed  regularly,  but  want 
the  Supine  : 


Caecutio,  to  be  dim-sighted. 
Dementio,  to  be  mad. 
Ferocio,  to  be  fierce. 
Glocio,  to  cluck  as  a  hen. 


Gestio.  to  show  one's  joy  by  the 
gestures  of  the  body. 

Ineptio,  to  play  the  fool. 


For  Desiderative  Verbs  which  belong  to  his  Conjugation,  see 

§  88.  3. 


§  82.  LIST  OF  DEPONENT  VERBS  IRREGULAR  IN 

THE  PERFECT  PARTICIPLE. 

•» 

Pule. — Deponent  and  common  verbs  form  the  per¬ 
fect  participle  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the  active  voice  ex¬ 
isted,  §  72.  Obs.  3. 

To  this  rule  there  are  no  exceptions  in  the  First  con¬ 
jugation. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  THE  SECOND  CONJUGATION 


Reor, 

reri, 

r&tus, 

To  think. 

Misereor, 1 

misereri, 

misertus, 

To  pity. 

FAteor,2 

Medeor, 

fateri, 

mederi, 

fassus, 

To  confess. 

To  heal. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN 

THE  THIRD 

CONJUGATION. 

Labor, 

labi, 

lapsus. 

To  slide. 

Ulciscor, 

ulcisci, 

ultus, 

To  revenge. 

Utor, 

Liquor,3 

uti, 

usus, 

To  use. 

loqui, 

loquutus, 

To  speak. 

Sequor, 

sequi, 

sequutus, 

To  follow. 

Queror, 

queri, 

questus, 

To  complain. 

3  The  Compounds  of  farcio  change  a  into  e :  as,  refer cio,  refersi 
refertum ,  to  fill  up. 

1  Miser eor  has  also  miseritus  in  the  Perfect  Participle. 

2  The  Compounds  of  fdteor  change  a  into  i,  and  have  fessus :  as, 
confiteor ,  confessus,  to  confess.  Diffiteor ,  to  deny,  wants  the  Perf. 
Participle. 

3  Loquor  and  sSquor  have  likewise  locutus  and  secHtus  in  the  Per¬ 
fect  Participle 


15 


no 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

§83 

Nitor,4 5 

niti, 

nisus,  or  nixus, 

To  strive. 

Paciscor. 

pacisci, 

pactus, 

To  bargain . 

Gradior, 

gradi, 

gressus, 

To  go. 

Proficiscor, 

proficisci, 

profectus, 

To  go  a  journey 

Nanciscor, 

nancisci, 

nactus, 

To  obtain. 

Pittior, 

pati, 

passus, 

To  suffer. 

Apiscor,6 

apisci, 

aptus, 

To  get. 

Comminiscor, 

comminisci, 

commentus, 

To  devise . 

Fruor, 

f.  ui, 

fruitus,  or  fructus, 

To  enjoy , 

Obliviscor, 

oblivisci, 

oblitus, 

To  forget. 

Expergiscor, 

expergisci, 

experrectus, 

To  awake. 

M6rior,6 

mori, 

mortuus, 

To  die. 

Nascor,7 

nasci, 

natus, 

To  be  born. 

Orior,8 

oriri, 

ortus, 

To  rise. 

The  following  Verbs  want  the  Perfect  Participle  : 


Defetiscor,-i,  to  be  weary. 
Irascor,  -i,  to  be  angry. 
Liquor,  -i,  to  melt. 


Reminiseor,  -i,  to  remember. 
Ringor,  *i,  to  grin  like  a  dog. 
Vescor,  -i,  to  feed. 


EXCEPTIONS  IN  THE  FOURTH  CONJUGATION 


Metior, 

Ordior, 

Experior, 

Opperior, 


metiri, 

ordiri, 

experiri, 

opperiri. 


mensus, 

orsus, 

expertus, 

opertus, 


To  measure. 
To  begin. 
To  try. 

To  wait 


§  83.  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Irregular  V erbs  are  those  in  which  some  of  the  secon¬ 
dary  parts  are  not  formed  from  the  primary,  according  to  the 
rules  for  regular  verbs. 

4  Nitor,  when  compounded  with  con,  in,  ob,  re,  sub,'  has  nixua 
oftener  than  nisus.  Adnitor,  to  lean  to,  has  either  indifferently. 
Enitor ,  in  the  sense  of  to  bring  forth ,  generally  takes  enixa  in  the 
Participle. 

5  Adipiscor  and  indipiscor,  to  obtain,  have  adeptus  and  indeptus. 

6  Morior  seems  to  have  originally  belonged  to  the  Fourth  Conjuga¬ 
tion.  The  Infinitive  moriri  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Ovid;  and  mori- 
mur,  with  the  penult  long,  is  also  found.  The  Imperative  is  mor$re. 
This  verb,  with  nascor  and  orior ,  has  iturus  in  the  Fut.  Part.:  as 
moriturus,  nasciturus ,  oriturus. 

7  Nascor  is  Passive  in  signification,  but  has  no  active  voice 

6  Orior  has  orire,  and  always  oriretur  in  the  Imperfect  Subjunc¬ 
tive,  according  to  the  Fourth  Conjugation.  Likewise  in  the  Com¬ 
pounds  adoriretur,  exoriretur ;  and  not  adoreretur ,  exoreretur.  The 
Present  follows  the  Third,  though  oriris  and  oritur,  with  the  penult 
long,  are  also  found. 


§83 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 


171 


The  irregular  verbs  are  six ;  namely,  sum ,  eo,  queo ,  volo, 
fero,  and  jio.  Their  compounds  are  irregular,  also. 

Sum  has  been  already  inflected,  §  54.  After  the  same 
manner  are  inflected  its  compounds,  ad-,  ab-,  de -,  inter-,  ob 
prce-,  sub-,  supersum;  as,  adsum,  adesse,  adfui,  &c.  Insum 
wants  the  preterite. 

1  Prosum,  to  do  good,  inserts  d  where  the  simple  verb 
begins  with  e.  It  is  inflected  thus. 

Prosum,  prodesse,  profui,  To  do  good . 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Prosum,  prodes,  prodest,  prosumus,  prodestis,  prosunt. 
Imp.  Prod-eram 

Perf.  Profu-i, 

Plup.  Profu-erar 
Fut.  Prod-ero, 

F.  P.  Profu-ero, 


-eras, 

-erat,  -eramus, 

-eratis, 

-erant. 

-isti, 

-it,  -imus, 

-istis, 

(  -erunt, 

* 

(  or-ere. 

-eras, 

-erat,  -eramus, 

-eratis, 

-erant. 

-eris, 

-erit,  -erimus, 

-eritis, 

-erunt. 

-eris, 

-erit,  -erimus, 

-eritis, 

-erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Pro-sim,  -sis,  -sit,  -slmus,  -sitis,  -sint. 
Imp.  Prod-essem,  -esses, -esset, -essemus,-essetis,-essent. 
Perf.  Profu-erim,  -eris,  -erit,  -erimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 
Pl  up.  Profu-issein,  -isses,  -isset,  -issemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  2.  Prod-es,  or  prod-esto,  2.  Prod-este,  or  prod-estote, 
3.  Prod-esto  ;  3.  Pro-sunto. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Prod-esse,  Fut.  Esse  pro-futurus,  -a-  um, 

Perf.  Pro-fuisse,  F.  P.  Fuisse  pro-futurus,  -a,  -um. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pro-futurus, -a,  -um. 

2.  Possum  is  compounded  of  potis,  “able,”  and  sum ,  “I 
am.”  It  is  thus  inflected. 

Possum,  posse,  potui,  I  can ,  lam  able. 


m 

IRREGULAR 

VERBS. 

§83 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Possum,  potes,  potest;  possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 
Imp.  Pot-eram,  -eras,  -erat,  -eramus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Perf.  Potu-i, 

-isti,  -it, 

-imus, 

-istis,  | 

-erunt, 
or  -ere. 

Plup.  Potu-eram, 

-eras,  -erat, 

-eramus, 

-eratis 

-erant. 

Fut.  Pot-ero, 

-eris,  -erit, 

-erimus, 

-eritis, 

-erunt. 

F.  P.  Potu-ero, 

-eris,  -erit, 

-erimus, 

-eritis, 

-erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Pos-sim, 

-sis,  -sit, 

-slums, 

-sitis. 

-sint. 

Imp.  Pos-sem, 

-ses,  -set, 

-semus, 

-setis, 

-sent. 

Perf.  Potu-erim, 

-eris,  -erit, 

,  -erimus 

,  -eritis 

,  -erint. 

Plup.  Potu-issem 

,  -isses,  -isset,  -issemus,  -issetis, -issent. 

INFINITIVE 

MOOD. 

Pres.  Posse. 

Perf. 

Potuisse, 

the  rest 

wanting. 

3.  Eo, 


Ire,  Ivi,  itum, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


To  go . 


Pr.  Eo,  is,  it; 


imus. 


ltis, 


eunt. 

Imp.  Ibam,  ibas,  ibat;  ibamus,  ibatis,  ibant. 

Per.  Ivi,  ivisti,  ivit ;  ivimus,  ivistis,  iv  erunt  o?*ivSre. 

Pjlu.  Iveram,  iveras,iverat;  iveramus,iveratis,iverant. 

Fut.  Ibo,  ibis,  ibit;  ibimus,  ibitis.  ibunt. 

F.  P.  Ivero,  iveris,  iverit ;  iverimus,iveritis,  iverint. 


Pr.  Earn,  .  eas, 

Imp.  Irem,  ires, 

Per.  Iverim,  iveris 
Plu.  Ivissem,  ivisses,  ivisset 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Pr.  lens,  Gen.  euntis. 
Fut.  Iturus,  -a,  -um. 


eamus,  eatis,  eant. 
iremus,  iretis,  irent. 
iverimus,  iveritis,  iverint. 

;  ivissemus,  ivissetis,  ivissent, 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Ire. 

Per.  Ivisse. 

Fut.  Esse  iturus, -a,  -um. 

F.  P.  Fuisse  iturus,  -a,  -um, 

GERUNDS.  SUPINES. 

Eundum.  1.  Itum, 

Eundi,  «fec.  2.  Itu. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

eat; 
iret; 
iverit 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


173 


§  83 

The  compounds  of  Eo  are  conjugated  after  the  same  man¬ 
ner;  ad-,  ab-,  ex-,  co-,  in-,  inter-,  ob-,  red-,  sub-,  per-, 
pice-,  ante-,  prod-eo;  only  in  the  perfect,  and  the  tenses 
formed  from  it,  they  are  usually  contracted ;  thus,  Adeo,  adire , 
adii,  seldom  adivi,  aditum,  to  go  to ;  perf.  Adii,  adiisti, 
or  adisti,  & c.  adieram,  adierim ,  &c.  So  likewise  veneo, 

venii, - ,  to  be  sold,  (compounded  of  venum  and  eo.)  But 

ambio,  -ire,  -ivi,  -Hum,  to  surround,  is  a  regular  verb  of 
the  fourth  conjugation. 

Eo,  like  other  neuter  verbs,  is  often  rendered  in  English 
under  a  passive  form  ;  thus,  it,  he  is  going ;  wit,  he  is  gone  ; 
iverat,  he  was  gone;  iverit,  he  may  be  gone,  or  shall  be 
gone.  So,  venit ,  he  is  coming;  venit,  he  is  come;  vene- 
rat,  he  was  come,  &c.  In  the  passive  voice  these  verbs  for 
the  most  part  are  used  only  impersonally  ;  as,  itur  ab  illo , 
he  is  going;  ventum  est  ab  illis,  they  are  come.  We  find 
some  of  the  compounds  of  eo,  however,  used  personally ;  as, 
pericula  adeuntur, — are  undergone.  Cic.  Libri  sibyllini 
aditi  sunt, — were  looked  into.  Liv.  Flumen  pedibus  trans- 
iri  potest.  Caes.  Inimicitice  subeantur.  Cic. 

Queo,  I  can,  and  Nequeo,  I  cannot,  are  conjugated  the 
same  way  as  eo  ;  only  they  want  the  imperative  and  the  ge¬ 
runds  ;  and  the  participles  are  seldom  used. 

4.  Volo,  velle,  vblui,  To  will,  to  be  willing,  to  wish. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pr.  Vol-o,  vis,  vult ;  volumus,  vultis,  volunt. 
Imp.  Vol-ebam,  -ebas,  -ebat;  -ebamus,  -ebatis,  -ebant. 


Per.  Volu-i,  -isti, 

-it; 

-imus, 

-istis, 

\  -erunx. 

[  or  -ere. 

Plu.  Volu-eram,-eras, 

-erat; 

-eramus, 

-eratis, 

-erant. 

Fut.  Vol-am,  -es, 

-et; 

-emus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

F.  P.  Volu-ero,  -eris, 

-erit; 

-erimus, 

-eritis, 

-erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Velim,  velis,  velit;  vellmus,  velltis,  velint. 

Imp.  Vellem,  velles,  vellet;  vellemus,  velletis,  vellent. 

Per.  Volu-erim,  -eris,  -erit ;  -erimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Plu.  Volu-issem,-isses,  -isset;  -issemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

15* 


174 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


§83 


INFINITIVE  MOOD.  PARTICIPLES. 

Pr.  Velle.  Perf.  Voluisse.  Pres.  Volens. 

5.  Nolo,  nolle,  nolui.  To  beunwilling. [From  ?ion  volo.~] 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Nolo,  non-vis,  non-vult;  nolumus,  non-vultis,  nolunt. 
Imp.  Nol-ebam,  -ebas,  -ebat. 

Per.  Nolu-i,  -isti,  -it; 

Plu.  Nolu-eram,-eras,  -erat; 

Fut.  Nol-am,  -es,  -et ; 

F.  P.  Nolu-ero,  -eris,  -erit; 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Nolim,  nolis,  nolit ;  nolimus,  nolltis,  nolint. 

Imp.  Noliem,  nolles,  nollet;  nollemus,  nolletis,  nollent. 

Per.  Nolu-erim,  -eris,  -erit;  -erimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Plu.  Nolu-issem,-isses,  -isset;  -issemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

IMPERATIVE.  INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 
Noli  or  j  nollte  or  Pr.  Nolle.  Pr.  Nolens. 
Nolito.  (  nolitote.  Per.  Noluisse.  The  rest  wanting. 


6.  Malo,  malle,  malui.  Tobemoreivilling.  [Magis  voloJ\ 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Mal-o,  mavis,  mavult;  malumus,  mavultis,  malunt. 


Imp. 

Mal-ebam, 

-ebas,  -ebat; 

-ebamus, 

-ebatis,  -ebant. 

Per. 

Malu-i, 

-isti,  -it  ; 

-imus, 

-  (  -erunt 

-istis,  < 

(  or -ere. 

Plu. 

Malu-eram, 

-eras,  -erat ; 

-eramus, 

-eratis,  -erant. 

Mal-am, 

-es,  -et ; 

-emus, 

-etis,  -ent. 

F.  P. 

Malu-ero, 

-eris,  -erit ; 

-erimus, 

-eritis,  -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Malim,  malis,  malit ;  mallmus,  malitis,  malint. 

Imp.  Mallem,  malles,  mallet ;  mallemus,  malletis,  mallent. 

Per.  Malu-erim,  -eris,  -erit ;  -erimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Plu.  Malu-issem,-isses,  -isset ;  -issemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Malle.  Per.  Maluisse.  The  rest  not  used. 


-ebamus,-ebatis, 

-imus,  -istis, 

-eramus,  -eratis, 
-emus,  -etis, 
-erimus,  -eritis, 


175 


§  S3  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


7.  F ero,  ferre,  tiili,  latum.  To  carry ,  to  bring ,  or  suffer . 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 


Pr.  Fero, 

fers, 

fert ;  ferimus,  fertis, 

ferunt. 

Imp.  Fer-ebam, 

-ebas, 

-ebat ;  -ebamus,  -ebatis, 

-ebant. 

Per.  Tul-i, 

-isti, 

-it :  -imus,  -istis,  < 

-erunt, 

.  .  1 

or  -ere. 

Plu.  Tul-eram, 

-eras, 

-erat ;  -eramus,  -eratis, 

-erant. 

Fut.  Fer-am, 

-es. 

-et ;  -emus,  -etis, 

-ent. 

F.  P.  Tul-ero, 

-eris, 

-erit ;  -erimus,  -eritis, 

-erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Fer-am, 

-as, 

-at ;  -amus,  -atis, 

-ant. 

Imp.  Fer-rem, 

-res, 

-ret ;  -remus  -retis, 

-rent. 

Per.  Tul-erim, 

-eris, 

-erit ;  -erimus,  -eritis, 

-erint. 

Plu.  Tul-issem, 

-isses, 

-isset  j  -issemus,  -issetis, 

-issent. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

_  % 

Pr.  Fer,  or  ferto,  ferto  ;  ferte,  or  fertote,  ferunto, 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Ferre.  F  ut.  Esse  laturus,  -a,  -um. 

Per.  Tulisse.  F.  P.  Fuisse  laturus,  -a,  -um. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Pr.  Ferens. 

Fut.  Laturus,  -a,  -um. 


GERUNDS. 

N.  Ferendum, 
G.  Ferendi,  &c. 


SUPINES. 

1.  Latum. 

2.  Latu. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Feror,  ferri,  latus.  To  be  brought. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pr 

Imp 


Feror, 

Fer-ebar, 


ferris 
or  ferre, 
-ebaris 
or  -ebare, 


ferturj  ferimur,  ferimlni,  feruntur 
-ebatur;  -ebamur,  -ebamini,  -ebantur. 


Per.  Latus  sum,  or  fui,  latus  es,  or  fuisti,  &c. 

Plu.  Latus  eram,  or  fueram,  latus  eras,  or  fueras,  8cc. 

Fut.  Ferar,  3  Qr  fergTe  r  feretur  ;  feremur,  fere  mini,  ferentnr. 

F  P.  Latus  fuero  latus  fueris,  &C. 


176 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


§83 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pb  Ferar,  ^  or  ferlre  |  ^’er®Ltur  »  feramur,  feramlni,  ferantur. 

Imp.  Ferrer,  |  ferrC>reS  °?  j  ferretur;ferremur,feiTemini,ferrentinr 

Per.  Latus  sim,  or  fuerim,  latus  sis,  or  fueris,  &c. 

Plu.  Latus  essern,  or  fuissem,  latus  esses,  or  fuisses,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Pr. 

Ferre,  or  fertor,  fertor  ; 

ferimini,  feruntor. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. 

Ferri. 

Per.  Latus,  -a,  -um. 

Per.  Esse,  or  fuisse  latus,  -a,  -um.  Fut.  Ferendus,  -a,  -um. 
F ut.  Latum  iri. 

In  like  manner  are  conjugated  the  compounds  of  fero  ;  as, 
affero ,  attuli,  alia  turn  ;  aafero ,  abstuli ,  abldlum  ;  differoy 
distuli ,  dilation ;  confero ,  contuli ,  collatum;  infero,  intuli, 
illdtum ;  offero,  obt.uli,  obldtum  ;  effero ,  extuli ,  datum. 
So,  dream -,  per-,  trans-,  de-,  pro-,  ante-,  prce re-fero. 
In  some  writers  we  find  adfero,  adtuli,  adlatum  ;  conldtum; 
inldtum  ;  obfero,  &c.  for  off  ero,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  Most  part  of  the  above  verbs  are  made  irregular 
by  contraction.  Thus,  nolo  is  contracted  for  non  volo;  malo 
for  magis  volo  ;  fero ,  fers ,  fert,  See.  for  feris,  ferity  &c. 
Feror ,  ferris  or  f  'err e,  fertur,  for  ferreris ,  See, 


8.  Fio,  fieri,  factus.  To  be  made ,  or  done,  to  become, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Flo,  fis,  fit ;  fimus,  fitis,  hunt. 

Imp.  Fiebam,  fiebas,  fiebat;  fiebamus,  fiebatis,  fiebant. 

Per.  Factus  sum,  or  fui,  factus  es,  or  fuisti,  &c. 

Plu.  Factus  eram,  or  fueram,  factus  eras,  or  fueras,  &c. 
Fut.  Fiam,  fies,  fiet ;  fiemus,  fietis,  fient. 

F.  P.  Factus  fuero,  factus  fueris,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Fiam,  fias,  fiat ;  fiamus,  fiatis,  fiant. 

Imp.  Fierem,  fieres,  fieret ;  fieremus,  fieretis,  fierent. 

Per.  Factus  sim,  or  fuerim,  factus  sis,  or  fueris,  &c. 

Plu.  Factus  essem,  or  fuissem,  factus  esses,  o  busses,  &c. 


§83 


IRREGULAR  VERES. 


177 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pr-  into,  fito:  {  fitote,  fiunt0- 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pr.  Fieri, 

Per.  Esse,  or  fuisse  factus,  -a,  -um. 
Fut.  Factum  iri. 


PARTICIPLES  SUPINE. 

Per.  Factus,  -a,  -um.  2.  Factu. 

Fut.  Faciendus,  -a,  -um. 

Obs.  2.  The  third  person  singular  of  jio  is  often  used  im¬ 
personally  ;  as,  fity  “  it  happens”  jicbat,  “  it  happened”. 

Obs.  3.  Fio  is  used  as  the  passive  of  facio ,  from  which  it 
takes  the  participles.  The  compounds  of  facio  which  retain 
a  have  jio  in  the  passive  ;  as,  calefacio ,  “  I  warm,”  calejio 
“I  become  warm,”  “I  am  warmed,”  &c.  But  those  com¬ 
pounds  which  change  facio  into  jicio  have  the  regular  pas¬ 
sive  in  jicior ,  as,  conjicio ,  conjicior ,  &c. 

9.  To  irregular  verbs  may  be  added  Edo ,  “  to  eat.” 
Though  this  is  a  regular  verb  of  the  third  conjugation,  it 
has  an  irregular  form  resembling  sum  in  the  Pres.  Indicative, 
Imperfect  Subjunctive,  the  Imperative,  and  the  Present  Infi¬ 
nitive  ,thus; 

Edo,  edere  or  esse,  edi,  esum,  To  eat . 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Pres.  Edo, 


(  edis, 

(  ores, 


edit, 
or  est, 


edimus, 


editis, 
or  estis, 


edunt. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

(  Ederem,  ederes,  ederet,  ederemus,  ederetis,  ederent; 
(  or  essem,  esses,  esset,  essemus,  essetis  essent. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


P»r»  5  Ed*>  0r  ed't0’ 
(  Es,  or  esto, 


edito;  edite,  or  editote, 
esto;  este,  or  estote, 


|  edunto. 


178 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


§84 

§  84.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  are  not  used  in  some 
of  their  parts. 

1.  These  three,  odi ,  coepi ,  and  memini ,  are  used  only  in 
the  preterite  tenses,  that  is,  in  the  perfect, and  the  tenses  de¬ 
rived  from  it,  and  for  this  reason  are  called  Preterite 

V  ERBS. 

Obs.  1.  Coepi  has  a  present  as  well  as  a  perfect  significa¬ 
tion  ;  and  hence  coeperam,  has  the  sense  of  the  imperfect,  as 
well  as  of  the  pluperfect;  and  coepero,  of  the  future  as  well 
as  of  the  future  perfect;  thus,  coepi ,  “  I  begin”  or  “I  have 
begun;”  cceperam ,  “I  began”  or  “I  had  begun;”  coepero , 
“I  shall  begin”  “I  shall  have  begun;”  and  so  of  the  sub¬ 
junctive. 

Obs .  2.  Odi  and  memini  have  only  the  present,  imperfect, 
and  future  sense;  as,  odi ,  uIhate;”  oderam ,  “I  hated;” 
odero ,  “  I  will  hate.” 

2.  The  parts  of  these  verbs  in  use  are  as  follows ;  viz : 

Odi ,  oderam ,  odero,  oderim ,  odissem ,  odisse. 

Participles,  osus ,  osurus. 

Coepi ,  coeperam,  coepero ,  coeperim ,  coepissem ,  coepisse. 

Participles,  coeptus,  coepturus • 

Memini ,  memineram,  meminero ,  meminerim ,  meminissem , 
meminisse .  Imperative,  memento ,  mementote. 

3.  The  verb  rawz  is  also  used  as  a  preterite,  having  like 
odi  and  memini  only  the  sense  of  the  present,  the  imperfect, 
and  future.  It  differs  from  the  others,  however,  in  having  a 
present,  nosco,  which  properly  has  an  inceptive  sense,  mean¬ 
ing  “  I  begin  to  know,”  UI  learn;”  hence  novi ,  “I  have 
learned,”  that  is  “I  know.” 

The  parts  of  novi  in  use,  are  as  follows ;  viz, 

Novi,  noveram,  novero,  noverim ,  novissem,  novisse; 
Contracted,  noram,  -  norim ,  nfissem,  nosse. 

4.  There  are  many  verbs  not  usually  considered  among 
defectives  which  want  certain  tenses  or  numbers  or  persons ; 
thus,  do  “  I  give,”  has  neither  dor  nor  der.  Fari  to  speak, 
with  its  compounds,  is  used  only  by  the  poets,  and  by  them 
chiefly  in  the  third  person  ;  fatur ,  the  imperative  fare,  and 
the  participle  fdtus.  The  ablative  gerund,  fando ,  occurs  in 
a  passive  sense. 


§84 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


179 


Furore, to  be  mad,  wants  the  first  pers.  sing,  and  the  se¬ 
cond  pers.  pi.  of  the  pres,  and  probably  all  the  future  of  the 
indicative  ;  and  the  imperative,  also  the  Perfect  and  Supine. 

5.  The  following  defective  verbs  are  those  which  most 
frequently  occur.  Aio  “I  say;” — inquam ,  “  I  say,”  used 
only  between  words  quoted,  and  never  stands  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  ; — forem ,  “I  should  be;”  the  same  as  essem; — ave,  and 
salve  “hail;”  Cedo ,  “  tell  thou,”  or  “  give  me  ;”  quceso,  “I 
beseech,”  originally  the  same  as  qucero.  It  is  used  common¬ 
ly  as  an  interjection. 

The  parts  of  these  verbs  rema:ning  are  the  following. 

1.  Aio,  I  say,  I  affirm. 

Ind.  Pres.  Aio,  ais,  ait,  -  - —  aiunt. 

Imp.  Aiebam,  aiebas,  aiebat,  aiebamus,  aiebatis,  aiebant. 

Perf. -  aisti,  ait,  -  -  - 

Sub.  Pres.  -  aias,  aiat,  -  -  aiant. 

Imp.  Pres. -  ai,  -  ■  ■■  —  — 

Part. Pres,  aiens, 

2.  Inquam,  cc  I  say” 

Ind.  Pres.  Inquam,  inquis,  inquit;  inqulmus,  inquitis,  inquiunt. 

Imp.  -  - ,  inquiebat; -  -  inquebant. 

Per.  -  inquisti,  inquit;  -  -  - — — 

Fur. - inquies,  inquiet;  -  - - 

Imp.  Pres. -  inque,  inqulto;  inqulte, - 

Part. Pres,  inquiens. 

3.  Forem,  I  should  be. 

Sub.  Imp.  Forem,  fores,  foret,  -  -  forent. 

Inf.  Fut.  Fore,  to  be  about  to  be,  same  as  futurum  esse. 

4.  Ave,  “  hail.'” 

Imp.  Pres.  Ave,  or  aveto  ;  avete,  or  avelote. 

Inf.  Pres.  Avere. 

5.  Salve,  hail. 

Ind.  Fut.  Salvebis. 

Imp.  Pres.  Salve,  or  salveto,  salve te,  or  salvetote. 

Inf.  Pres.  Salvere. 

6.  Cedo,  tell,  give. 

Imp.  Pres.  Cedo,  cedo,  or  cedite,  contracted  cette. 

7.  Qu.&so,  I  beseech. 

Ind.  Pres.  Quoeso,  - ,  - ,  quaesumus,  - ,  - . 

6.  Ausim,  faxim,  and  faxo,  sometimes  called  defective  verbs  are 
properly  old  forms  of  tenses;  Ausim  being  put  for  aus&rim,  from 
audeo ,  to  dare  ;  and  faxim,  and  faxo ,  fech'im  and  fecZro  from  facio. 
So  also  age  and  agite,  11  come,”  are  imperatives  from  ago  in  a  some¬ 
what  different  sense,  just  as  ave ,  “  hail,”  is  an  imperative  from  aveo , 
“  to  be  well.” 


180 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


§85 


§  85.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

1 .  Impersonal  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only  in  the 
third  person  singular,  and  do  not  admit  of  a  personal  subject 
or  nominative  before  them. 

2.  Impersonal  verbs  when  translated  literally  into  English, 
have  before  them  the  neuter  pronoun  it  ;  as,  delectat ,  “  it  de¬ 
lights,”  decet ,  “  it  becomes,”  contingit,  “  it  happens  ”  evenit , 
“  it  comes  to  pass  ;”&c.  They  are  inflected  thus, 


ls^.  Conj. 

2d  Conj. 

3d.  Conj. 

4th  Conj. 

Ind.  Pre.  Delectat, 

Decet, 

Contingit, 

Evenit 

Imp.  Delectabat, 

DecSbat, 

Contingebat, 

Eveniebat, 

Per.  Delectavit, 

Decuit, 

Contlgit, 

Evenit, 

Plu.  Delectaverat, 

Decuerat, 

Contigerat, 

EveneraC 

Fut.  Delectabit, 

Decebit, 

Continget, 

Eveniet, 

F.  P.  Delectaverit. 

Decuerit. 

Contigerit. 

Evenerit. 

Sub  Pre..  Delectet, 

Deceat, 

Contingat, 

Eveniat 

Imp.  Delectaret, 

Deceret, 

Contingeret, 

EvenTret 

Per.  Delectaverit, 

Decuerit, 

Contigerit, 

Evenerit, 

Plu.  Delectavisset. 

Decuisset. 

Contigisset. 

Evenisset. 

Inf.  Pre.  Delectare 

Decere, 

Contingere, 

E  venire, 

Per.  Delectavisse. 

Decuisse. 

Contigisse. 

Evenisse. 

3.  Most  Latin  verbs  may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  |  as* 
sive  voice  especially  Intransitive,  or  Neuter  verbs,  which 
otherwise  have  no  passive  ;  as,  pugnatur ,  “  it  is  fought 
favctur ,  “  it  is  favored;”  curritur ,  “  it  is  run  ;”  venltur,  “  it 
is  come;”  from  pugno,  faveo,  curro ,  and  venio.  Thus, 

Ind.  Pre.  Pugnatur  Favetur,  Curritur,  Yenltur, 

Imp.  Pugnabatur,  Favebatur,  Currebatur,  Venitbatur, 
Per.  Pugnatum  est,1  Fautumest,1  Cursum  est,1  Ventumest,1 
Plu.  Pugniltum  erat2  Fautum  erat2  Cursumerat2  Ventumerat2 
Fut.  Pugnabltur,  Favebltur,  Curretur,  Venietur, 

F.  P.  Pugnatum erit.3  Fautum  erit.3  Cursum erit.3  Ventumerit.3 

Sub.  Pre.  Pugnelur,  Faveatur,  Curratur,  Venlatur, 

Imp.  Pugnaretur,  Faveretur,  Curreretur,  Yeniretur, 
Per.  Pugnatum  sit,3  Fautum  sit,3  Cursum  sit,3  Yentumsit,  5 
Plu.  Pugnatum  essel4Fautum  esset4  Cursum  esset4  Yentumesset4 

Inf.  Pre.  Pugnari,  Faveri,  Curri,  Veniri, 

Per.  Pugnatum  esse5  Fautum  esse6  Cursum  esse5  Ventum  esse,® 
Fut.  Pugnatum  Iri.  Fautum Iri.  Cursum  Iri.  Yentumlri. 


1  or  fuit.  2orfuSrat.  3  or  fu6rit.  4  or  fuisset.  6  or  fuisse. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS 


181 


§85 


4.  Grammarians  reckon  only  ten  real  impersonal  verbs,  and 
all  in  the  second  conjugation;  namely 


Decet,  decuit,  &c.  it  becomes,  it  became,  &c. 

Libet,  libuit,  or  libitum  est,  & c.  it  pleases,  it  pleased,  &c. 
Licet,  licuit ,  or  licitum  est,  &c.  it  is  lawful,  it  was  lawful,  &c. 
MisSret >  mistruit,  or  miseritum  est,  & c.  it  pities,  it  pitied,  &tc. 
Oportet,  oportuit,  &c..  it  behooves,  it  was  incumbent  on,  &c. 
Piget,  piguit,  or  pigitum  est,  &c.  it  grieves,  it  grieved,  8cc. 
Poenitet ,  poenituit,  &c.  it  repents,  it  repented,  &c. 

Pudet,  puduit,  puditum  est,  See.  it  shames,  it  shamed,  &c. 
Tcedet .  tceduii ,  or  tcesum  est,  <kc.  it  wearies,  it  wearied,  &c. 
Liquet,  it  appears.  This  verb  has  no  perfect. 


But  many  other  verbs  are  used  impersonally  in  all  the  con¬ 
jugations. 

5.  Under  impersonal  verbs  may  be  comprehended  those 
which  express  the  operations  or  appearances  of  nature ;  as, 
fulgurat ,  it  lightens  ;  fulrmnat,  tonat ,  it  thunders  ;  grandi- 
nat ,  it  hails ;  so  gelat ,  pluit ,  ningit ,  lucescit ,  advesperascit ,  &c. 

6.  Impersonal  verbs  are  applied  to  any  person  or  number, 
by  putting  that  which  stands  before  other  verbs  as  their  no¬ 
minative,  after  the  impersonals  in  the  case  which  they  gov¬ 
ern  ;  as, 


Placet  mihi, 
Placet  tibi, 
Placet  illi , 
Placet  nobis , 
Placet  vobis, 
Placet  illis, 


it  pleases  me,  or  I  please, 
it  pleases  thee, or  thou  pleasest. 
it  pleases  him,  or  he  pleases, 
it  pleases  us,  or  we  please, 
it  pleases  you,  or  you  please, 
it  pleases  them,  or  they  please. 


So  pugnatur  a  me,  a  te,  ah  illo,  &c.  It  is  fought  by  me, 
by  thee,  by  him  ;  that  is,  I  fight,  thou  lightest,  he  figi  ts ; 
&c.  Hence,  as  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be 
expressed,  either  by  the  active  or  passive  voice,  so  when  an 
intransitive  verb  is  translated  by  a  verb  considered  tran¬ 
sitive  in  English,  (§  38.  Ohs.  5.)  the  English  passive  form  of 
that  verb  is  expressed  in  Latin,  by  the  passive  used  imperson¬ 
ally  ;  thus,  Active,  faceo  tibi ,  “  I  favour  you  Passively, /hre- 
tur  tihi  a  me,  “  you  are  favoured  by  me,”  and  so  of  others. 

7.  Impersonal  verbs,  not  being  used  in  the  imperative,  take 
the  subjunctive  in  its  stead  ;  as,  delect et ,  “  let  it  delight.”  In 
the  passive  voice  their  participles  are  used  only  in  the  neu¬ 
ter  gender.  The  gerunds  and  supines  are  but  seldom  used. 


182 


OP  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


5  S6 


$  86.  EXERCISES  ON  IMPERSONALS. 

[For  tlie  meaning  of  the  impersonals  used  in  the  following 
exercises,  see  No.  2.  3.  4.  of  the  preceding  section.] 

1.  Give  the  designation ,  the  'place  found,  the  translation  y 
thus,  delectat.  A  verb  impersonal  1st  conjugation  ;  found  in 
the  present  Indicative  active  ;  “  it  delights.” 

Delectabit,  decebat,  decebit,  deceret,  contingit,  continget, 
contigit,  contigerit,  evenit,  evenit,  eveniet,  eveniat,  pugna- 
batur,  pugnatum  est,  pugnetur,  pugnaretur,  favetur,  fautura 
sit,  fautum  fuerit,  ventum  est,  ventum  erit ; — libet,  libuit, 
licitum  est,  miseret,  miseritum  est,  piget,  pudet,  fulgurat, 
tonat,  &c. 

2.  Give  the  designation ,  &c.  as  in  No.  1,  and  translate  as 
the  ivord  following  the  impersonal  requires  according  to 
§  85.  6.  Thus,  delectat  me.  Delectat ,  a  verb  impersonal,  1st 
conj.  Pres.  Ind.  Act.  “  it  delights  me,”  or  “  I  delight.” 

Delectabit  me,  te,  ilium,  nos,  vos,  illos, — decet  vos,  dece¬ 
ret  vos,  placet  tibi,  favetur  vobis,  favebitur  nobis,  (a  te,  by 
you,)  pugnabitur  ab  illis,  venltur  a  te,  ventum  est  ab  illis,  a 
vobis,  a  nobis,  ab  illo,  a  te,  a  me  ;  piget  me,  licet  mihi,  lice- 
bit  vobis,  licitum  est  illis,  miseret  me,  miseruit  te,  &c. 

3.  Render  the  following  English  into  Latin ,  by  the  imper¬ 
sonals;  thus,  I  delight,  delectat  me ,  literally,  “  it  delights 
me.”  N.  B.  The  noun  or  pronoun,  after  miseret ,  poeratet , 
pudet ,  tcedet ,  piget ,  decet ,  delectat ,  and  oportet ,  must  be  put 
in  the  accusative,  §  113.  Exc.  II.  &  III.  Other  impersonals 
are  followed  by  the  dative  of  the  object  when  they  have  one; 
and  when  they  express  any  thing  done  by  another,  the  agent 
or  doer  when  expressed  is  put  in  the  ablative  preceded  by  a 
or  ab ,  as  in  §  85.  6. 

Exercises. — It  becomes,  it  has  repented,  it  is  fought,  it 
pleases,  it  is  favoured ;  it  becomes  me,  I  repent,  (it  repents 
me,)  I  fight,  (it  is  fought  by  me,)  you  are  favoured,  (it  is 
favoured  to  you,)  you  are  favoured  by  me,  I  repented,  they 
have  repented,  you  will  repent,  they  are  favored  by  us,  by 
you,  by  me,  &c.  We  are  favored  by  them,  by  you;  they 
come,  (it  is  come  by  them,)  they  have  come,  we  will  come, 
we  run,  we  will  run,  if  (si,)  you  please,  if  they  please,  it 
was  allowed  to  us,  we  w'ere  allowed,  it  delights  us,  or  we 
are  delighted,  they  are  delighted,  it  thunders,  it  lightens,  it 
hailed,  &o 


§87,88  REDUNDANT  AND  DERIVATIVE  VERBS.  183 

§  87.  REDUNDANT  VERBS. 

Redundant  Verbs  are  those  which  have  more  than  one 
form  of  the  same  part,  or  which  have  different  forms  to  ex¬ 
press  the  same  sense ;  as,  assentio  and  assentior ,  to  assent ; 
fabrico  or  fabri  cor,  to  frame  ;  mereo  and  mereor,  to  deserve  ; 
Edis,  and  es ,  “  thou  eatest  $”  edit  and  est ,  “  he  eats  from 
edo ,  &c. 

Redundant  verbs  in  Latin  are  chiefly  those  which  are 
used  in  different  conjugations  ;  for  example, 

1.  Some  are  usually  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  sometimes 
of  the  third  \  as,  lavo,  lavdre ,  and  lavo,  lav  ere,  to  wash. 

2.  Some  are  usually  of  the  second  conjugation,  and  some¬ 
times  of  the  third  ;  as, 

Ferveo  ?fervere,  and  fervo  ,fervere,  to  boil, 

Fulgeo,fulgere,  and  fulgo,fulgere,  to  shine . 

Strideojstridere,  and  strido.stridere,  to  creak ,  &c. 

3.  Some  are  commonly  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  some¬ 
times  of  the  fourth  ;  as, 

Fodio,fodere,  and  fodio,fod!re,  to  dig. 

Sallo,sallere,  and  sallio,sallIre,  to  salt ,  &c. 

4.  Cieo,  cure  is  commonly  of  the  second  conjugation,  but 
sometimes  it  is  ciofctre  in  the  fourth,  “  to  stir  up.” 


§  88.  DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  derived  either  from  nouns  or  from  other  verbs. 

I.  Verbs  derived  from  nouns  are  called  Denominatives; 
as,  coeno ,  to  sup ;  laudo ,  to  praise ;  fraudo,  to  defraud ; 
layid,o,  to  throw  stones ;  operor ,  to  work,  &c.  from  coena , 
laus,  fraus,  lapis,  &c. 

But  when  they  express  imitation  or  resemblance  they  are 
called  Imitatives ;  as,  patrisco,  Grcecor,  bubulo ,  cor ni cor ,  &c. 
I  imitate  or  resemble  my  father,  a  Grecian,  an  owl,  a  crow  j 
from  pater,  Grcecus,  bubo,  cor  nix. 

II.  Verbs  derived  from  other  verbs  are  chiefly  the  follow¬ 
ing  ;  viz. 


184 


OP  DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 


§88 


1.  Frequentatives.  These  express  frequency  of  action 
and  are  all  of  the  first  conjugation.  They  are  formed  from 
the  last  supine,  by  changing  dtu  into  ito ,  in  the  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation,  and  u  into  o  in  verbs  of  the  other  three  con¬ 
jugations  ;  thus, 

Last.  Sup .  Freq. 

1st,  Clamo,  to  cry  ;  clamatu,  hence  clamilo,  to  cry  frequently } 

2d,  Terreo,  to  frighten;  terrltu,  “  territo,  to  frighten  often. 

3d,  Yerto,  to  turn;  versu,  “  verso,  to  turn  frequently . 

4th,  Dormio,  to  sleep  ;  dormltu,  “  dormlto,  to  sleep  often. 

In  like  manner  deponent  verbs  form  frequentatives  in  or, 
as  minor ,  to  threaten;  of  which  in  the  active  voice,  the  latter 
supine  would  be  minatu,  and  hence  mimtor,  to  threaten  fre¬ 
quently,  ever  and  anon. 

Obs.  1.  Some  frequentatives  are  formed  in  an  irregular 
manner ;  as,  ?iato,  from  no;  noscito  from  nosco;  stitor  or 
rather  sciscitor  from  scio  ;  pavito,  from  paveo  ;  sector ,  from 
sequor  ;  loqidtor ,  from  loquor.  So  quccrito ,  fundito ,  agtto , 
fl into,  &c.  which  formed  regularly  would  be  queesi  to,fuso , 
aclo,Jluxo ,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  From  frequentative  verbs  are  also  formed  other 
frequentatives;  as,  curro ,  curso ,  cursrto ;  pello,  pulso,  pulsi- 
to ,  or  by  contraction  pulto ;  capio ,  capto ,  captito  ;  cano ,  cantot 
cantito ;  defendo ,  defenso,  defensito;  dico,  dicto,  dictito,  &c. 

Obs.  3.  Frequentatives  do  not  always  express  frequency 
of  action.  Many  of  them  have  much  the  same  sense  with 
their  primitives,  or  express  the  meaning  with  greater  force. 

2.  Inceptive  Verbs.  These  mark  the  beginning  or  con¬ 
tinued  increase  of  an  action  or  state.  They  are  formed  by 
adding  -co  to  the  second  person  singular,  of  the  present  indi¬ 
cative  ;  thus, 

1st  Conj.  Labo,  labas,  Inceptive,  labasco. 


2d 

“  Caleo, 

cales, 

a 

calesco. 

3d 

cc  Tremo, 

tremis, 

a 

tremisco. 

4th 

“  Obdormio, 

obdormis, 

« 

obdormisco. 

Note. — But  all  verbs  in  -sco  are  not  inceptives.  Inceptives  are  al¬ 
so  formed  from  substantives  and  adjectives  ;  as,  puerasco,  from 
puer  ;  dulcesco,  from  dulcis  ;  juvenesco,  from  juvenis. 

Obs.  4.  All  inceptives  are  intransitives,  and  of  the  third 
conjugation.  They  properly  want  both  the  preterite  and 


§89 


OF  ADVERBS. 


185 


supine,  unless  very  rarely  when  they  borrow  them  from 
their  primitives. 

3.  Desiderative  Verbs,  are  those  which  signify  a  de¬ 
sire  or  intention  of  doing  a  thing.  They  are  formed  from 
the  latter  supine  by  adding  -rio,  and  shortening  u  ;  as,  coend - 
turio ,  “  I  desire  to  sup,”  from  coeno,  last  supine,  coenatu. 
They  are  all  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  want  both  prete¬ 
rite  and  supine,  except  these  three  ;  viz.  esurio ,  esurire, 
esurzvi ,  esuntum ,  to  desire  to  eat ;  parturio ,  parturire ,  par - 
turivi , — to  be  in  travail,  and  nupturio ,  nupturire ,  nupturivi , 
• — to  desire  to  be  married. 

4.  Diminutives,  which  represent  an  action  as  little  or 
insignificant.  They  are  formed  from  the  present  by  chang¬ 
ing  o ,  eo,  and  zo,  into  -z‘Z/o,  and  they  are  all  of  the  first  con¬ 
jugation  3  as,  canto ,  cantillo ,  conscribo ,  conscribillo ,  sorbeo, 
sorbiilo. 

5.  Some  verbs  in  -SSO  are  called  Intensive  ;  as,  capessot 
facesso ,  petesso ,  or  petisso,  I  take,  I  do,  I  seek  earnestly. 


$  89.  OF  ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  joined  to  a  verb ,  an 
jective ,  or  another  adverb ,  to  modify  it,  or  denote 
some  circumstance  respecting  it. 

Adverbs  may  be  considered  in  respect  of  Signi¬ 
fication ,  Derivation ,  and  Comparison . 

I.  THE  SIGNIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS 

In  respect  of  signification,  adverbs  may  be  ar¬ 
ranged  in  Latin  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Adverbs  of  Place,  comprehending  those  which  signify, 

1st.  Motion  or  Rest  in  a  place  ;  as,  w&i,  where  ;  hie,  here  ;  i7Z£c, 
there  ;  tnZws,  within  ;  foris,  without ;  ublque ,  every  where,  &c. 

2d.  Motion  to  a  place ;  as,  quo  ?  whither ;  hue,  hither  ;  illuc , 
isthuc ,  thither  ,*  eo,  to  that  place  ;  alio,  to  another  place,  & c. 

3d.  Motion  from  a  place ;  as,  unde ,  whence  ;  hinc,  hence ;  Mine, 
inde,  thence ;  superne,  from  above,  &c. 

4th.  Motion  through  or  by  a  place ;  as,  quel  ?  which  way?  hac ,  thi» 
way  j  alia,  another  way,  &c. 

16* 


186  OP  ADVERBS.  §  89 

2.  Adverbs  of  Time  ;  as,  nunc ,  now  ;  hodie,  to-day  ;  turn,  then  ; 
nuper ,  lately  ;  mox,  by  and  by  ;  semper ,  always,  8tc. 

3.  Adverbs  of  Quantity  ;  as,  parum ,  little  ;  multum ,  much  ; 
almost ;  quanto ,  how  much,  &c. 

4.  Adverbs  of  Quality  ;  as,  fcene,  well ;  ill ;  fortitcr , 

bravely,  and  many  others  derived  from  adjectives  and  participles. 

5.  Adverbs  of  Manner,  (viz.  of  action  or  condition,)  including 
those  which  express  exhortation ,  affirmation,  negation,  granting,  for- 
bidding,  interrogation,  doubt,  contingency ,  &c.  as,  profectb,  truly ; 
non,  hand,  not ;  cur  ?  why  ?  quare ,  wherefore,  &c. 

6.  Adverbs  of  Relation,  or  such  as  express  circumstances  of  com¬ 
parison,  resemblance,  order,  assemblage ,  separation,  8ce.  as,  potiust 
rather  ;  ita,  sic,  so  ;  simul,  together  j  seorsum,  apart,  &c. 

II.  DERIVATION  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  ADVERBS. 

The  Simple  and  Primitive  adverbs  are  but  few 
in  number ;  as,  non,  not ;  ibi,  there ;  mox,  present¬ 
ly;  tunc,  then,  &c. 

The  Derivative  Adverbs  are  numerous,  and  are 
formed  in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  De¬ 
clension  generally  end  in  e ;  as,  alte,  highly  j  from  altus ;  libZre, 
freely,  from  liber.  Sometimes  they  end  in  o,  urn,  or  ter ;  as  tuto , 
safely,  from  tutus ;  tantum,  so  much,  from  tantus;  dure  and  duriter, 
hardly,  from  durus. 

2.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension  gene¬ 
rally  end  in  -ter  ';  as ,  feliciter,  happily,  from  felix.  Sometimes  e; 
as,  facile,  easily,  from  facilis ;  and  one  ends  in  o,  namely,  omnino , 
altogether,  from  omnis. 

The  Neuter  gender  of  adjectives  is  often  used  adverbially;  as. 
recens ,  recently,  for  recenter ;  torva,  sternly,  for  torve ;  as,  dulce  ri- 
dens,  sweetly  smiling,  &c. 

3.  Adverbs  derived  from  nouns,  generally  end  in  im  or  itus ;  as, 
viritim,  man  by  man,  from  vir ;  funditus,  from  the  ground,  from 
fundus. 

Many  adverbs  in  -im,  however  are  derived  from  participles ;  as, 
sensim,  by  degrees,  from  sensus,  ( sentio ,  I  perceive.)  A  few  in  -itus 
are  derived  from  adjectives  ;  as,  antiquitus ,  from  antiquus ,  $tc. 


OF  ADVERBS. 


1S7 


$  89 

v 


4.  Adverbs  are  formed  by  composition  in  various  ways;  two  or 
more  words  forming  a  phrase  or  part  of  a  sentence,  and  syntactically 
combined,  being  formed  into  one  word  ;  as,  hodie,  to-day,  from  hoc  die  ; 
scilicet ,  truly,  from  scire  licet ;  quomodo,  how,  from  quo  modo ;  qua/n - 
obrem.  wherefore,  from  quam  ob  rcm ,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  The  adverb  is  not  an  essential  part  of  speech.  It  only 
serves  to  express  in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  have  required 
two  or  more  ;  as,  sapienter,  wisely  ;  for  cum  sapientia ;  semper,  al¬ 
ways,  for  in  omni  tempore ,  &c.  Indeed  similar  phrases  used  to  express 
circumstances  of  time,  place,  manner,  order,  and  the  like,  constitute 
what  may  be  called  adverbial  phrases,  or  clauses, though  the  words 
of  which  they  consist,  are  to  be  parsed  separately,  and  combined  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  rules  of  syntax. 

Obs.  2.  Some  adverbs  of  time,  place  and  order,  are  frequently 
used,  the  one  for  the  other  ;  as,  ubi,  where  or  when  :  inde ,  from  that 
place,  from  that  time,  after  that,  next ;  hactSnus,  hitherto,  thus  far. 
applied  indifferently  to  place,  time,  or  order. 

Obs.  3.  Some  adverbs  of  time  apply  indifferently  to  the  past,  the 
present,  or  the  future  ;  as,  jam,  already,  now,  by  and  by  ;  olim ,  long 
ago,  sometime  hereafter.  Some  adverbs  of  place  are  equally  va¬ 
rious  in  their  use  ;  as,  esse  peregre,  to  be  abroad  ;  ire  peregre,  tc  go 
abroad,  redire  peregre ,  to  return  from  abroad. 


III.  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  are  generally 
compared  like  their  primitives.  The  positive  com¬ 
monly  ends  in  -e,  -o,  or  -ter;  the  comparative  in 
-ius ;  and  the  superlative  in  -ime ;  as, 


Positive. 

Comp. 

Super. 

Alte,  highly; 

altius, 

altisslme. 

Fortlter,  bravely  ; 

fortius, 

fortisslme. 

Acrlter,  sharply  ; 

acrius, 

acerrlme. 

Libere,  freely  ; 

liberius, 

liberrlme. 

Tuto,  safely  ; 

tutius, 

tutisslme. 

The  following  adverbs  are 
from  which  they  are  derived 

compared  irregularly,  like  the  adject! 
;  viz. 

Bene,  well ; 

melius, 

optime. 

Facile,  easily ; 

facilius 

facillime. 

Male,  badly ; 

pejus. 

pesslme. 

Mullum,  much; 

plus, 

plurimum. 

Parum,  little; 

minus 

5  minlme. 

(  minimum. 

Prope  near ; 

propius, 

proxlme. 

188 


OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


§90 


Positive  wanting. 

Magis,  more ,  maxime;  ocius,  more  swiftly ,  occissime  ;  prius,  soon¬ 
er )  prlmo,  or  primum  ;  potius,  rather,  potisslmum. 

Comparative  wanting . 

Pene,  almost ,  penissime  ;  nuper,  lately ,  nuperrlme  j  nove, or  novl* 
ter,  newly,  novissime  ;  merlto,  deservedly ,  meritisslme. 

Superlative  wanting. 

Satis,  enough ,  satins  ;  secus,  otherwise,  secius. 

Two  Adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  also  compared ; 
namely,  diu,  long,  diutius,  diutissime;  and  saepe,  often,  saepim, 
scepisslme. 


$  90.  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


A  Preposition  is  a  word  which  shows  the 
relation  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  following 
it,  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

The  preposition,  as  its  name  imports,  stands  before  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun  which  it  governs,  and  shews  the  relation  between  it  and  some 
preceding  word. — In  Latin  ; 


Twenty-eight  Prepositions 

Ad,  to,  at,  towards. 

Apud,  at,  near,  with. 

Ante,  before,  (of  time,  place 
or  rank.)  . 

Adversus,  )  .  .  .  , 

.  i  ’  >  against,  towards 

Adversum,)  ° 

r,.  1  ’  £  around,  about. 

Circum,  \ 

Girciter,  about,  (of  time  in¬ 
definitely.) 

Citra  |  on  s^e'>  without. 

Contra,  against,  opposite. 
Erga,  towards. 

Extra,  beyond ,  out  of. 

Infra,  beneath. 


govern  the  Accusative  ;  viz. 

Inter,  between ,  among, during. 
Intra,  within. 

Juxta,  near,  beside. 

Ob,  for,  on  account  of,  before. 
Penes,  in  the  power  of. 

Per,  through,  during,  ly. 
Pone,  behind. 

Post,  behind,  after,  since. 
PrsBter,  besides,  (passing  by,) 
beyond,  besides,  except. 
Propter,  near,  on  account  °f 
Secundum,  along,  according  to 
Supra,  above. 

Trans,  across ,  over ,  beyond. 
Ultra,  beyond. 


OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


189 


§  90 


Fifteen  Prepositions  govern  the  Ablative ,  viz . 

Ab,  |  from,  by,  after,  &e.  ExJ™'0/-  from’  after -  **• 

Abs,  )  Palam,  before ,  ^Ae  knoio- 

Absque,  without.  ledge  of. 

Clam, without thehnowledge of  Prce,  before ,  eVz  comparison 
Coram,  before ,  presence  of.  with ,  on  account  of 

Cum,  wteYA.  Pro,  before,  for,  according  to. 

Do,  concerning,  of,  over.  Sine,  without. 

Tenus,  as  far  as,  up  to. 

Four  Prepositions  govern  the  Accusative  or  Ablative;  viz. 

With  the  Accusative.  With  the  Ablative. 

In,  into,  towards,  against.  In,  upon,  in,  among. 

Sub,  under,  (motion  to,)  about.  Sub,  under ,  (motion  or  rest,) 
Super,  above,  over ,  beyond.  at,  near. 

Subler,  under.  Super,  upon ,  concerning. 

Subter,  under. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  A  is  used  before  consonants  ;  ab  before  vowels,  and  h,  j,  r,  s ,  and 
sometimes  1/  abs  before  t  and  qu.  E  is  used  before  consonants. 

2.  Tenus  is  placed  after  its  case  ;  and  also  cum,  when  joined  to  me, 
te,  se,  quo,  qui,  and  quibus ;  as,  mecum,  &c.  Clam  sometimes  go¬ 
verns  the  Accusative  as  clam  patre,  or  patrem. 

3.  The  adverbs  prope,  nigh,  usque  ,  as  far  as  ;  versus ,  towards  ;  are 
often  followed  by  an  accusative  governed  by  ad  understood,  and  some¬ 
times  expressed.  So  also  procul,  far,  is  followed  by  the  Ablative 
governed  by  a,  understood. 

4.  Prepositions  not  followed  by  their  case  are  to  be  regarded  as 
Adverbs. 

5.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  combined  ;  as,  ex  adversus  eum  lo¬ 
cum.  Cic.  In  ante  diem,  “  till  the  day.”  Cic.  Ex  ante  diem,  “  from 
the  day.”  But  prepositions  compounded  together,  commonly  be 
come  adverbs  or  conjunctions  ;  as ,propdlam,  protinus,  insuper,  &c. 

6.  A  Preposition  with  its  case  is  often  used  as  an  adverbial 
phrase  ;  as,  ex  animo,  “earnestly;”  ex  adverso,  “opposite;”  ex 
improviso,  “  suddenly  ;”  extempore,  “  off-hand.”  Quamobrem ,  ( quam 
ob  rein,)  “  wherefore  ;”  quapropter  ( quce  propter ,)  quocirca  ( quod 
circa,  &c. 

7  Prepositions  are  either  primitive  ;  as,  ad,  apud,  ante,  &c.  or 
derivative  ;  as,  adversum  from  the  a  Ijective  adversus  ;  secundum ,  from 
tecundus.  They  are  either  simple  ;  as,  ad,  ante,  abs  ;  or  compound 
is,  ex  adversum,  absque. — Or  inseparable  as.  am,  di  or  dis,  &c 
?  91.  2 


190 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 


§91 


*  91.  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

/ 

1 .  Prepositions  are  often  prefixed  to  other  words 
especially  to  Verbs,  the  meaning  of  which  they 
generally  modify  by  their  own;  thus, 

1.  A,  ab,  abs,  from;  as  duco ,  “I  lead,”  abduco,  “I  lead  away,” 
or  “from;”  sometimes  it  denotes  privation;  as,  amens,  “mad.” 

2.  Ad,  to;  as,  adduco,  “ 1  lead  to.”  It  is  sometimes  intensive;  as, 
adamo,  “  I  love  greatly.” 

3.  De,  in  composition,  generally  signifies  “downward;”  as ,  descen- 
do,  “  I  go  down;”  decldo,  “  I  fall  down;”  sometimes  it  is  intensive; 
as,  deamo,  “I  love  greatly;”  sometimes  it  denotes  privation;  as, 
dcsptro,  “  I  despair  ;”  demens,  “  mad.” 

4.  E  or  ex,  out  of ;  from  ;  as,  exeo,  “  I  go  out;”  it  is  sometimes 
intensive  ;  as,  exoro,  “  I  beg  earnestly.”  Sometimes  privative ;  as 
exsanguis,  “  pale  ;”  exspes,  “  hopeless.” 

5.  In,  into,  in,  against ;  as,  infero,  “  I  bring  in  ;*  irruo,  “  I  rush 
against  or  upon.”  With  adjectives  it  generally  reverses  the  significa¬ 
tion  ;  as,  infidus,  “  unfaithful ;”  indignus,  “unworthy.”  In  some 
compounds  it  has  contrary  significations,  according  as  they  are  pard. 
ciples  or  adjectives:  as,  invocatus,  “  called  upon,”  “  not  called  upon  ;” 
immutatus ,  “  changed,”  “  unchanged  ;”  impotens,  means  “  weak,”* 
sometimes  “  powerful.” 

6.  Per,  through,  is  commonly  intensive,  especially  with  adjectives  j 
as,  per/acilis,  “  very  easy  ;”  with  quam,  it  is  strongly  intensive  ;  as, 
per  quam  facilis ,  “  exceedingly  easy.”  In  perjidus,  “  perfidious,”  it 
is  negative. 

7.  Pros,  before,  with  adjectives  is  intensive  ;  as,  prceclarus,  “  very 
clear,”  “  very  renowned. ” 

8.  Pro ,  denotes  “  forth,”  as  produco,  “  I  lead  forth.” 

9.  Sub ,  often  diminishes  the  signification;  as,  rideo,  “  I  laugh  ;” 
subrideo,  “  I  smile  ;”  albus,  “  white  ;”  subalbus,  “  whitish.”  Some¬ 
times  it  denotes  motion  upwards  ;  as,  subrigo,  “  I  raise  up  ;”  some¬ 
times  concealment ;  as,  rapio,  “  I  take  ;”  subripio,  “  I  take  secret¬ 
ly,”  “I  steal.” 

Note. — Prepositions  frequently  seem  to  add  nothing  to  the  words, 
with  which  they  are  compounded. 

Obs.  1.  In  combining  with  the  simple  word,  some  prepositions 
frequently  undergo  a  change  of  form,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  euphony 
for  which  see  §  80.  R.  5. 


OP  INTERJECTIONS. 


191 


INSEPARABLE  PREPOSITIONS. 


2.  The  following  syllables,  am,  di ,  or  dis ,  re , 
C07Z,  are  called  Inseparable  Prepositions ,  because 
they  are  never  found  except  in  compound  words. 
Their  general  signification  is  as  follows : 


Am,  about ,  around  ; 

Di,  or  dis,  asunder; 

Re,  back,  again  ; 

Se,  apart  or  aside; 

Con,  together ; 


as 

a 

u 

(( 

u 


Ambio,  to  surround. 

Divello,  to  pull  asunder. 

Relego,  to  read  again. 

Sepono,  to  lay  aside. 

Concresco,  to  grow  together. 


Obs.  1.  Some  of  these  syllables  in  combining  with  the  simple  word 
sometimes  vary  their  form,  §  80.  5.  and  also  further  modify  its  signi¬ 
fication  ;  as, 

1st.  Am  adds  to  the  verb  the  general  idea  of  round,  round  about. 


2d.  Dis,  or  di,  sometimes  reverses  the  meaning  of  the  simple 
word  ;  as,  facilis,  “  easy  ;”  difficilis,  “  difficult ;”  fido,  “ 1 
trust,”  diffldo,  “  I  distrust  ;”  sometimes  it  increases  it;  as, 
cupio,  “  I  desire  ;”  discupio,  “ 1  desire  much.” 


3d.  Re  sometimes  reverses  the  meaning  of  the  simple  word ;  as, 
claudo,  “ 1  shut ;”  recludo,  “  I  open.” 


4th.  Se  has  little  variation  of  meaning.  With  adjectives  it  denotes 
privation  ;  as,  securus,  “  free  from  care.” 

5th.  Con,  (for  cum,)  conveys  the  idea  of  joint  or  combined  action, 
and  sometimes  increases  the  meaning  of  the  word  with  which 
it  is  compounded. 

Obs.  2.  The  syllables  ne  and  veare  also  prefixed  to  words  and  have 
a  negative  signification;  as,  fas,  “justice,”  nefas,  “injustice;” 
“impiety;”  scio,  “I  know,”  nescio,  “I  know  not;”  sanus , 
“  healthy,”  vesanus,  “  sickly.” 


$  92.  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  which  expresses  some 
emotion  of  the  speaker;  as,  Oh,  hex,  heu ,  ah,  alas! 

Nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  neuter  gender  are  sometimes  used  as 
interjections;  as,  pax!  “be  still;”  malum ,  “with  a  mischief! 
infandum ,  “O  shame!”  miserum,  “O  wretched!”  nefas,  11 0  the 
villany !” 

Note. — The  same  interjection  is  often  used  to  express  different 
emotions  according  to  its  connection;  thus,  vah,  is  used  to  express 
wonder,  grief,  joy,  and  anger. 


192 


OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 


§  93 


$  93.  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  connects 
words  or  sentences;  as  et,  ac,  atque ,  “and;” 
sed  “hut;”  etiam,  “also  &c. 

Conjunctions  according  to  their  different  significations  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  classes, 

1.  Copulatives  or  such  as  connect  things  that  are  to  be  considered 
jointly  ;  as,  ac,  atque ,  et,  que,  and  ;  etiam ,  quoque,  also  ;  and  some¬ 
times  the  negative  nec,  neque,  nor,  and  not. 

2.  Disjunctives,  or  such  as  connect  things  that  are  to  be  considered 
separately;  as,  aut,  seu,  sivc,  ve,  vel,  either,  or;  and  the  negative 
neve,  neu,  neither,  nor. 

3.  Concessives,  or  such  as  express  a  concession  ;  as,  esti,  estiamsi, 
tametsi,  licei,  quanquam,  quamvis ,  though,  although. 

4.  Adversatives,  or  such  as  express  a  condition  ;  as,  at,  atqui,  au - 
tern,  cetdrum,  verum ,  but;  t amen, att amen,  veruntdmen,  yet,  although  ; 
vero,  truly. 

5.  Casuals,  or  such  as  express  a  cause  or  reason  ;  as,  dnim,  et£nim% 
nam,  namque,  for  ;  quando ,  quandoquidem ,  whereas,  since  ;  quia, 
quippe,  quod ,  because  ;  quoniam,  quum ,  (or  cum,)  since,  siquidem,  if, 
indeed. 

6.  Illatives,  or  such  as  express  an  inference  ;  as,  ergo,  idcirco, 
proinde,  quapropter ,  quart,  quamobrem,  quocirca,  therefore. 

7.  Finals,  or  such  as  denote  a  purpose,  object  or  result  ;  as,  ne, 
lest ;  quin,  but  that ;  quominus,  that  not ;  ut,  uti ,  that. 

8.  Conditionals,  or  such  as  express  a  condition  ;  as,  si,  sin  if;  nisi 
or  ni,  unless;  dummodo,  or  dum  modo,  provided  that. 

9.  Suspensives,  or  such  as  express  doubt  ;  as,  an,anne ,  annon ,  ne, 
necne,  num,  utrum,  whether,  whether  or  not. 

Obs.  1.  Some  words,  as,  deinde, 11  thereafter  ;”  denique,  “  finally,'* 
cceterum ,  u  but,  moreover;’’  videlicet, ee  to  wit ;”  &c.  may  be  considered 
either  as  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  according  as  their  modifying  or 
connecting  power  prevails. 

Obs.  2.  Autem,  enim,  vero,  quoque,  quidem,  are  never  pul  first  in  a 
clause  or  sentence.  Que,  ve,  ne,  are  always  annexed  to  another 
word.  They  are  called  Enclitics ,  because  when  placed  after  a  long 
syllable,  they  make  the  accent  incline  to  that  syllable  ;  as,  disci, 
trochi ;  discive  trochxve. 

Obs.  3.  Conjunctions,  like  adverbs,  are  variously  compounded 
with  other  parts  of  speech,  and  with  each  other  ;  as,  atque,  idcirco , 
ideo,  namque,  nec  or  neque ,  &c. 


§  94  95 


OF  SYNTAX, 


193 


PART  THIRD. 


§  94.  SYNTAX. 

Syntax  is  that  part  of  Grammar,  which  treats 
of  the  proper  arrangement  and  connection  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

1.  A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes  complete 
sense  ;  as,  Man  is  mortal. 

2.  A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  but  not 
making  complete  sense  ;  as,  In  truth ,  in  a  word. 

3.  Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

4.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  verb  ;  as, 
Life  is  short. 

5.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple  sentences 
combined;  as,  Life  which  is  short,  should  be  well  employed. 

6.  Every  simple  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the  subject  and  the 
predicate. 

7.  The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of.  It  is  either  in  the 
nominative  case  before  a  finite  verb,  or  in  the  accusative  before  the 
infinitive. 

8.  The  predicate  is  the  thing  affirmed  or  denied  of  the  subject. 
It  is  either  contained  in  the  verb  itself;  as,  John  reads  ;  or  it  consists 
of  an  intr.  verb,  with  an  adjective  or  noun  following  it ;  as,  Time  is 
short ;  they  became  poor  ;  he  is  a  scholar 

9.  Both  the  subject  and  predicate  may  be  attended  by  other  words 
called  adjuncts,  which  serve  to  restrict  or  modify  the  meaning  of  the 
word  with  which  they  may  stand  connected  ;  as,  An  inordinate  desire 
of  admiration  often  produces  a  contemptible  levity  of  deportment. 

10.  When  a  compound  sentence  is  so  framed  that  the  meaning  is 
suspended  till  the  whole  be  finished,  it  is  called  a  period. 


§  95.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  In  every  sentence  there  must  be  a  verb  in  the  indicative,  subjunc¬ 
tive,  imperative,  or  infinitive  mood,  and  a  subject  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood. 

2.  Every  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  participle  must  have  a 
substantive  expressed  or  understood  with  which  it  agrees.  §  98  and  146 

17 


194  OF  SYNTAX.  §  95 

3.  Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  or  word  to  which  it  re¬ 
fers,  and  with  which  it  agrees.  §  99. 

4.  Every  nominative  has  its  own  verb  expressed  or  understood,  of 
which  it  is  the  subject.  §  100,  101,  102.  Or  is  placed  after  the  sub* 
stantive  verb  in  the  predicate.  §  103. 

5  Every  finite  verb;  i.  e.  every  verb  in  the  indicative,  subjunc¬ 
tive  or  imperative  mood,  has  its  own  nominative,  expressed  or 
understood.  §  101,  102.  and  when  the  infinitive  has  a  subject  it  is  in 
the  accusative.  §  145.  The  infinitive  without  a  subject  does  not 
form  a  sentence  or  proposition.  §  143. 

6.  Every  oblique  case  is  governed  by  some  word,  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood  in  the  sentence  of  which  it  forms  a  part ;  or  without  gov¬ 
ernment,  to  express  certain  circumstances,  §  127. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CASES. 

7.  The  GENITIVE  CASE  is  governed, 

1st.  By  substantives.  §  106.  Rules,  VI.  VII.  and  VIII. 

2d.  By  adjectives.  §  107.  Namely,  verbals,  &c.  R.  IX. — Partitives, 
R.  X. — Of  plenty  or  want,  R.  XI. 

3d.  By  verbs.  §  108.  Namely,  Sum,  R.  XII. — MiserSor,  &c.  R. 
XIII. — Recordor,  memini,  he.  R.  XIV. — Of  accusing,  &c.  §  122. 
R.  XXVII.— Of  valuing,  R.  XXVIII  — Passive  verbs.  §  126. 
R.  I.  and  II. — Impersonals.  §  113.  Exc.  I.  and  II. 

4th.  By  adverbs.  §  135,  and, 

5th.  It  is  used  to  express  circumstances  of  place.  §  130.  R.  XXXVI. 
and  XXXIX. 

8.  The  DATIVE  is  governed, 

1st.  By  substantives.  §  110. 

2d.  By  adjectives  of  profit  or  disprofit,  &c.  §  111.  R.  XVI 

3d.  By  verbs.  §  112.  Namely,  Sim,  and  its  compound.  R.  I. — Est. 
R.  II.  Certain  compound  verbs.  R.  III.  and  IV. — Verbs  signi¬ 
fying  to  profit  or  hurt,  he.  R.  V.  Impersonals.  §  113. — Verbs 
with  two  datives.  §  114.— Verbs  of  comparing,  &c.  §  123. — 
Passive  verbs.  §  126.  R.  XXXII.  and  XXXIII. — Gerunds.  §  147. 

4th.  By  adverbs.  §  135. — Interjections,  §  117. 

9.  The  ACCUSATIVE  is  governed, 

1st.  By  verbs  signifying  actively.  §  116.  R.  XX. — To  which  belong 
Recordor,  memini,  h c.  §  108.  Verbs  governing  two  cases.  §  122, 
namely  of  accusing,  R.  XXVII. — Valuing,  R.  XXVIII. — Com¬ 
paring,  &c.  §  123. — Asking  and  teaching,  §  124. — Loading, 
binding,  he.  §  125. — By  impersonal  verbs,  §  113.  Ex.  II.  and 
TTI. — By  passive  verbs,  §  126  R.  IV 


OF  SYNTAX. 


195 


§  95 

2d.  By  prepositions,  §  136.  R.  XLYIII.  L.  LI.  LII. 

3d,  It  is  used  to  express  circumstances  of  limitation,  §  128.— of 
place,  §  130. — Of  time,  §  131. — Of  measure,  §  132. 

4th.  It  is  put  before  the  infinitive  as  its  subject.  §  145. 

10.  The  VOCATIVE  is  governed  by  the  interjections  O, 
heU)  pro,  &c.  §  117. — Oris  used  without  government  to  de¬ 
note  the  person  addressed. 

11.  The  ABLATIVE  is  governed, 

1st.  By  nouns,  §  118. 

2d.  By  adjectives,  viz.  of  plenty  or  want,  §  107.  R.  XI. — Dignus , 
indignus ,  & c.  §  119. — The  comparative  degree,  §  120. 

3d.  By  verbs,  §  121.  viz.  of  plenty  and  scarceness,  R.  XXV. — Utor 
abutor,  &c.  R.  XXVI. — Loading,  binding,  &c.  §  125. — Passive 
verbs  §  126.  R.  V. 

4th.  By  prepositions,  §  136.  R.  XLIX  LI.  LII. 

5th.  It  is  used  without  a  governing  word  to  express  circumstances, 
viz. — Of  limitation,  §  128. — Of  cause, manner,  &c.  §  129. — Of 
place,  §  130.  Namely,  the  place  in  which ,  R.  XXXVI.— -from 
which,  R.  XXXVIII.  and  XXXIX.— Of  time,  §  131.  R.  XL. 
and  XLI. — Of  measure,  §  132.  R.  XLII.  XLIII. — Of  price. 
§  123. 

6th.  It  is  used  as  the  case  absolute.  §  146.  R.  LX. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  MOODS. 

12.  The  Indicative  and  Imperative  moods  are  independent 
and  without  government, 

13.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  always  dependent,  and  is 
used, 

1st.  After  certain  conjunctions,  §  140. 

2d.  After  the  relative  in  certain  connections,  §  141,  R.  LV 

3d.  In  oblique  discourse,  §  141.  Rule  VI. 

14.  The  Infinitive  Mood  is  used, 

1st.  Without  a  subject,  or  as  a  verbal  noun,  §  144.  and  R.  LVI. 
LVII. 

2d.  With  a  subject  in  dependent  and  subordinate  clauses,  §  145, 

15.  Participles  are  construed  as  adjectives,  Gerunds  and 
Supines  as  nouns,  §  146.  147.  148. 

16.  For  the  construction  of  adverbs  and  conjunctions,  see 
t>  134.  149. 


196 


SYNTAX. - THE  SUBSTANTIVE. 


§  96  97 


§  96.  PARTS  OF  SYNTAX. 

The  Parts  of  Syntax  are  commonly  reckoned 
two,  Concord  or  agreement,  and  Government. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with 
another,  in  gender ,  number ,  case ,  or  person. 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has 
in  determining  the  mood ,  tense ,  or  case  of  another 
word. 

I.  OF  CONCORD. 

Concord  or  agreement  is  fourfold ;  viz. 

1.  Of  a  substantive  with  a  substantive. 

2.  Of  an  adjective  with  a  substantive. 

3.  Of  a  relative  with  its  antecedent. 

4.  Of  a  verb  with  its  nominative  or  subject. 


§  97.  A  SUBSTANTIVE  WITH  A  SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule  I.  Substantives  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agree  in  case ;  as, 

Cicero  orator,  Cicero  the  orator. 

Ciceronis  oratoris,  Of  Cicero  the  orator,  &c. 

Urbs  Athence,  The  city  Athens. 

Urbi  Athenis,  To  the  city  Athens. 

EXPLANATION. — Substantives  thus  used  are  said  to  be  in  apposition  The 
second  substantive  is  added  to  express  some  attribute,  description,  or  appellative 
belonging  to  the  first,  and  must  always  be  in  the  same  member  of  the  sen¬ 
tence  ;  i.  e.  they  must  be  both  in  the  subject  or  both  in  the  predicate.  A  sub¬ 
stantive  predicated  of  another,  though  denoting  the  same  thing,  is  not  in  ap¬ 
position  with  it ,  and  does  not  come  under  this  rule,  §  103. 

This  rule  applies  to  all  substantive  words,  such  as  personal  and  relative 
pronouns,  adjectives  used  substantively,  &c. 

Nouns  in  apposition  are  often  connected  in  English,  by  such  particles  as 
as,  being,  for,  like,  &c.  as,  Pater  misit  me  comitem,  u  My  father  sent  me  as  a 
companion,”  11  for  a  companion,”  &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  It  is  not  necessary  that  nouns  in  apposition  agree  in  gen - 
der,  number,  or  person.  In  these  respects  they  are  often  different  $ 
as,  Magnum  pauperies  opprobrium.  Hor.  Alexin  delicias  domini. 
Virg. 

Obs.  2.  Two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular  have  a  noun  in  apposi¬ 
tion  in  the  plural ;  as,  M.  Antonius,  C.  Cassitis,  tribuni  plebis,  “Mar¬ 
cus  Antonius,  Caius  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  people.”  Also  if  the 


SYNTAX. - THE  ADJECTIVE. 


197 


§98 


singular  nouns  be  of  different  genders,  the  plural  in  apposition  will 
have  the  masculine  rather  than  the  feminine,  if  both  forms  exist ;  as, 
Ad  Ptolemceum  et  Cleopatram  reges,  (not  reginas )  legali  missi .  Liv, 

Obs.  3.  The  substantive  pronoun  having  a  word  in  apposition  is 
frequently  omitted  ;  as,  Consul  dixi,  (scil.  ego,)  u  (I)  the  consul 
said.” 

Obs.  4.  The  possessive  pronoun  being  equivalent  to  the  genitive  of 
the  personal,  has  a  noun  in  apposition  with  it  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 
Pectus  tuum,  hominis  simplicis. 

Obs.  5.  Sometimes  the  former  noun  denotes  a  whole,  of  which  the 
noun  in  apposition  expresses  the  parts  ;  as,  Onerarise,  pars  ad  JEgi - 
murum , — aliae  adversus  urbem  ipsam  delates  sunt,  “  The  ships  of 
burden  were  carried,  part  to  iEgimurus, — others  against  the  city  it¬ 
self”  So  Quisque  pro  se  queeruniur,  “  They  complain  each  for  him¬ 
self.” 

Obs.  6.  A  sentence  or  clause  may  supply  the  place  of  one  of  the 
substantives;  as,  Cogitet  oratorem  institui,  rem  arduam ;  “  Let  him 
consider  that  an  orator  is  training,  a  difficult  matter.” 

Exceptions. 

Exc.  1.  Sometimes  the  latter  substantive  is  put  in  the  genitive  ;  as, 
Fons  Timavi,  “  The  fountain  of  Timavus  ;”  Amnis  Eridani,  “The 
river  Eridanus  j”  Arbor  fici  u  the  fig  tree  ;”  Nomen  Mercurii  est  mihi. 
Words  thus  construed  may  be  referred  to  §  112. 

Exc.  2.  A  proper  name  after  the  generic  term  nomen ,  or  cognomen, 
sometimes  elegantly  lakes  the  case  of  the  person  in  the  Dative  ;  as, 
Nomen  Arcturo  est  mihi,  “  1  have  the  name  Arcturus.”  Plaut.  So, 
Cui  nunc  cognomen  lulo  additur.  Virg.  Cui  Egerio  inditum  nomen 
Liv.  Mansit  Silviis  postea  omnibus  cognomen.  Liv.  §  114.  Obs.  5. 

Exc.  3.  The  name  of  a  Town  in  the  genitive,  denoting  at  a  place , 
may  have  a  noun  of  the  third  declension  or  plural  number,  in  appo¬ 
sition  with  it  in  the  Ablative,  and  vice  versa  ;  as,  Corinthi  Achates 
urbe,  11  At  Corinth  a  city  of  Achaia.”  This  construction  depends 
on  the  rules,  §  130. 


§  98.  AN  ADJECTIVE  WITH  A  SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule  II.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  substan¬ 
tive  in  gender,  number,  and  case ;  as, 

Bonus  vir,  a  good  man.  Bonos  viros ,  good  men. 

Bona  puella,  a  good  girl.  Bonurum  legum,  of  good  laws. 

JDulce  pomum,  a  sweet  apple.  Tuis  donis,  with  thy  gifts. 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  to  all  adjectives,  adjective  pronouns,  and 
participles;  and  requires  that  they  be  in  the  same  gender,  number,  and  case 
with  their  substantives. — The  word  u  substantive,”  in  this  rule,  includes  per# 
sonal  and  relative  pronouns,  and  all  words  or  phrases  used  as  substantives 

17* 


198 


SYNTAX. - THE  ADJECTIVE. 


§95 


OBSERVATIONS. 


Obs.  1.  Two  or  more  substantives  singular,  unless  taken 
separately,  have  an  adjective  plural ;  as, 

Vir  et  puer  territi  lupo,  u  A  man  and  boy  terrified  by  a  wolf.” 

Obs.  2.  If  all  the  substantives  be  of  the  same  gender,  the 
adjectives  will  be  of  that  gender,  as  in  the  above  example. 
But  if  the  substantives  are  of  different  genders,  the  adjective 
takes  the  masculine  rather  than  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine 
rather  than  the  neuter  ;  as, 

Pater  mihi ,  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  My  father  and  mother  are  dead.  Ter. 

Obs.  3.  But  if  they  denote  things  without  life,  the  adjective 
is  commonly  neuter.  And  if  some  of  the  substantives  refer 
to  things  with  life,  and  others  to  things  without  life,  the  ad¬ 
jective  is  either  neuter,  or  takes  the  gender  of  the  thing  or 
things  with  life  ;  as 

Labor  volupiasque  sunt  dissimilia  naturd ,  u  Toil  and  pleasure  are 

unlike  in  nature.” 


Naves  et  captivi  qua  ad  Chium  capta  sunt.  “  The  ships  and  captives 

which  were  taken  at  Chios.” 

Numida  atque  militaria  signa  obscurdti  sunt ,  (i  The  Numidians  and 
their  military  standards  were  partially  concealed.” 

Obs.  4.  Sometimes,  however,  the  adjective  agrees  with  the  nearest 
noun,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest;  as,  sociis  et  rege  recepto.  Virg. 
u  Our  companions  and  king  being  recovered.” 


Note  1.  These  observations  may,  and  sometimes  do  hold  good,  even  when  one 
or  more  of  the  substantives  are  in  the  ablative,  connected  with  the  others  by 
cum;  as,  Filiam  cumfilio  accitos. 

Obs.  5.  When  the  substantive  to  which  the  adjective  or 
adjective  pronoun  belongs,  may  be  easily  supplied,  it  is  fre¬ 
quently  omitted,  and  the  adjective  assuming  its  gender,  num¬ 
ber,  and  case,  is  often  used  as  a  substantive,  and  may  have 
an  adjective  agreeing  with  it ;  as, 


Mortalis ,  a  mortal,  (sc.  homo.) 
Superi,  the  gods  above,  (sc.  dii.) 
Dextra,  the  right  hand,  (sc.  manus.) 
Sinistra,  the  left  hand,  (sc.  manus) 
Omnia  alia,  all  other,  (things,) 


IUe,  he,  (sc.  homo.) 
Illi,  they,  (sc.  homines ) 
Hie,  he,  (sc.  homo). 
Here, she,  (sc.  femina,) 
Familiaris  meus,  11  my 


intimate  friend.”  (sc.  amicus.) 


Obs.  6.  The  adjective,  especially  when  used  as  a  predi¬ 
cate,  without  a  substantive  or  definite  object,  is  used  in  the 
neuter  gender ;  as, 


Triste  lupus  stabulis ,  The  wolf  is  grievous  to  the  folds. 

Vacare  culpa  est  suave ,  To  he  free  from  blame  is  pleasant 
Labor  vincit  omnia,  Labor  overcomes  all  obstacles 


SYNTAX - THE  ADJECTIVE. 


199 


§98 


Obs.  7.  Imperatives,  infinitives,  adverbs,  clauses,  and 
words  considered  merely  as  such,  when  used  substantively, 
take  an  adjective  in  the  neuter  gender ;  as, 

Supremum  vale  dixit,  He  pronounced  a  last  farewell. 

Cras  istud  quando  vSnit,  When  does  that  to-morrow  come  ? 

Excepto  quod  nonsiinul  esses,  That  you  were  not  present,  being  ex* 

[cepted. 

Obs.  8.  A  substantive  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  po - 
pulum  late  regem  (for  regnant em,)  “a  people  of  extensive  sway.” 
Nemo  miles  Romanus,  “No  Roman  Soldier.”  Sometimes  an  ad¬ 
verb  ;  as,  Heri  semper  lenitas,  probably  for  lenitis  semper  existens ,  or 
the  like. 

Obs.  9.  These  adjectives,  primus,  medius,  ultlmus,  extremus,  in - 
fimus,  imus,  summus,  supremxis,  reliquus,  cat&ra,  usually  signify 
the  first  part,  the  middle  part,  & c.  of  any  thing,  and  are  placed 
before  the  substantive  ;  as,  media  nox,  “  the  middle  of  the  night;” 
summus  mons,  1 1  the  top  of  the  mountain.” 

Obs.  10.  Some  adjectives  denoting  the  time  or  circumstances  of  an 
action  are  used  in  the  sense  of  adverbs  ;  as,  prior  venit,  “  he  came 
first  of  the  two  ;”  pronus  cecidit,  “  he  fell  forward;”  abiit  sublimis, 
“  he  went  on  high.” 

Obs.  11.  Alius  though  an  adjective  is  often  used  as  a  pronoun,  and 
has  this  peculiarity  of  construction,  that  when  repeated  with  a  diffe¬ 
rent  word  in  the  same  clause,  it  renders  the  one  simple  proposition 
to  which  it  belongs  equivalent  to  two,  and  it  is  to  be  so  rendered  , 
thus,  Aliud  aliis  videtur  optimum,  “One  thing  seems  best  to  some , 
another  seems  best  to  others.”  So,  Duo  reges,  alius  alia  via,  ilie 
bello,  hie  pace,  civitatem  auxerunt,  “Two  kings,  one  in  one  way  and 
another  in  another,  Sec.  Or  the  two  simple  sentences  may  be  com¬ 
bined  in  a  plural  form,  thus:  “  Different  things  seemed  best  to  dif¬ 
ferent  persons.” — “Two  kings,  each  in  a  different  way,”  See.  The 
same  is  true  when  a  word  derived  from  alius,  such  as  aliunde,  aliter, 
alio,  is  put  with  it  in  the  same  clause  ;  as,  Aliis  aliunde  periculum 
est,  “  There  is  danger  to  one  person  from  one  source,  and  to  another 
from  another ,” — or  combined,  “  There  is  danger  to  different  persons 
from  different  sources.” 

Obs.  12.  When  alius  is  repeated  in  a  different  clause,  but  in  the  same 
construction,  the  first  is  to  be  rendered  “  one,”  the  second  “  another.” 
If  plural  “  some” — “  others,”  as,  aliud  est  maledicere,  aliud  accusare, 
“  It  is  one  thing  to  rail  at,  another  to  accuse.”  Cic.  Proferebant  alii 
pnrpuram ,  thus  alii,  “  Some  brought  forth  purple,  others  incense.” 

This  remark  is  applicable  to  alter,  remembering  only,  that  alius 
.signifies  one  of  many,  alter,  one  of  two  ;  as,  Quorum  alter  exercu 
turn  perdidit  alter  vendidit. 

Exceptions 

Exc.  1.  An  adjective  is  often  put  in  a  different  gender  or 
number  from  the  substantive  with  which  it  is  connected 


200 


SYNTAX - THE  RELATIVE. 


§99 


tacitly  referring  to  its  meaning  rather  than  to  its  form,  or  to 
some  other  word  synonymous  with  it,  or  implied  in  it ;  as, 

Latium  Capuaque  agro  mulctati,  “  Latium  and  Capua  were  deprived 
of  their  land,”  i.  e.  the  people  of  Latium,  & c.  Capita  conjurationis 
virgis  ccesi, — “  the  heads  (i.  e.  the  leading  men)  of  the  conspiracy 
&c. 

Exc.  2.  A  collective  noun  in  the  singular,  if  its  verb  be 
plural,  has  an  adjective  in  the  plural,  and  in  the  gender  of 
the  individuals  which  form  the  collection;  as, 

Pars  in  flumen  acti  sunt,  “  A  part  were  forced  into  the  river.” 
Sometimes  it  takes  the  gender  of  the  individual  in  the  singular ;  as, 

pars  arduus  furit,  &c. 

Exc.  3.  A  plural  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  denote  one  person,  in 
comic  writers,  sometimes  has  an  adjective  or  participle  in  the  singu 
lar,  as  Nobis  presente,  11 1  being  present.” 

Exc.  4.  The  adjective  pronouns,  uterque,  quisque ,  & c.  in  the  singular, 
are  often  put  with  nouns  in  the  plural,  to  intimate  that  the  objects 
are  spoken  of  individually  and  distributively  ;  as,  Uterque  eorurn  ex 
castris  exerciium  ediicunt ,  u  Each  of  them  leads  his  army  fVom  the 
camp.”  Quisque  pro  se  queruntur ,  11  They  complain  each  one  for 
himself.”  Alius  and  alter  are  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way  ;  as, 
Multa  conjecta  sunt  aliud  alio  tempore.  Obs.  11.  In  this  construction 
there  is  a  kind  of  apposition.  §  97.  Obs.  5. 


§  99.  THE  RELATIVE  AND  ANTECEDENT. 


Rule  III.  The  relative  Qui,  qua,  quod,  agrees 
with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  number,  and  per¬ 
son;  as, 


Ego  quiscribo , 

Tu  qui  legis, 

Vir  qui  loquitur, 
Viri  qui  loquuntur, 


I  who  write. 

Thou  who  readest. 
The  man  who  speaks. 
The  men  who  speak. 


EXPLANATION. — The  antecedent  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  going  before  the  rela¬ 
tive  to  which  it  refers.  Sometimes,  however,  the  relative  and  its  clause  is 
placed  before  the  antecedent  and  its  clause. 

The  infinitive  mood  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  sometimes  the  antecedent,  in 
which  case  the  relative  must  be  in  the  neuter  gender.  The  case  of  the  relative 
depends  on  the  construction  of  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs,  (See  Obs.  9.) 
and  in  this  respect  is  to  be  considered  as  a  noun. 


OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Strictly  speaking,  the  relative  does  not  agree  with 
the  antecedent ,  but  with  the  same  word  expressed  or  under¬ 
stood  after  the  relative,  and  with  which,  like  the  adjective, 


SYNTAX. - THE  RELATIVE 


201 


§  99 

it  agrees  in  gender ,  number  and  case ,  as  well  as  person; 
thus,  Diem  dicunt ,  qua  (die,)  &c.  They  appoint  a  day  on 
which  (day,)  &c.  Hence  in  connecting  the  antecedent  and 
relative  clause,  the  following  variety  of  usage  occurs,  viz : 

1st.  The  word  to  which  the  relative  refers  is  commonly  expressed 
in  the  antecedent  clause,  and  not  with  the  relative  ;  as,  vir 
sapit  qui  pauca  loquitur,  u  he  is  a  wise  man  who  speaks  little. ” 

2d.  It  is  often  not  expressed  in  the  antecedent  clause,  and  expressed 
with  the  relative  ;  as,  In  quern  prlmum  egressi  sunt  locum 
Troja  vocatur,  i.  e.  locus  in  quem,  &c. 

3d.  Sometimes  when  greater  precision  is  required,  it  is  expressed 
in  both  ;  as,  Erant  omnino  itinera  duo,  quibus  itinerlbus  domo 
exire  possent. 

4th.  When  the  reference  is  of  a  general  nature,  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  obscurity,  the  word  to  which  the  relative  refers  is 
understood  in  both  clauses  ;  as,  Sunt  quo s  jurat  collegisse,  i.  e. 
sunt  homines  quos  (homines)  jurat,  &c.  Non  habeo  quod  te 
accusem ,  i.  e.  non  habeo  id  propter  quod  te  accusem. 

Obs.  2.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  implied  in  a  preceding  word  ; 
as,  omnes  laudare  fortunas  meas  qui  habcrem,  See.  “all  were  praising  my 
fortune  who  had,’’  &c.  i.  e.  fortunas  mei  qui,  the  possessive  meas , 
being  equivalent  to  the  genitive  of  ego.  §  30.  Obs.  1. 

Obs.  3.  When  a  relative  refers  to  one  or  two  nouns,  denoting  the 
same  object,  but  of  different  genders,  it  may  agree  with  either  ;  as, 
Flumen  est  Arar  quod,  &c.  Here  quod  agrees  with  fiumen.  Ad  flu- 
men  Ossum  perventum  est ,  qui,  See.  Here  qui  agrees  with  Ossum. 

Obs.  4.  So  also  when  the  relative  stands  between  two  nouns  mean¬ 
ing  the  same  thing,  the  one  in  the  antecedent  and  the  other  in  the  re¬ 
lative  clause,  it  may  agree  with  either  :  as,  Genus  hominum,  quod 
vocatur  Helotes;  Animal  quem  vocamus  hominem.  In  the  first  sentence 
quod  agrees  with  genus  in  the  antecedent  clause,  in  the  second,  quem 
agrees  with  hominem  in  the  relative  clause. 

Obs.  5.  An  adjective  which  properly  belongs  to  the  antecedent  is 
sometimes  placed  in  the  relative  clause,  agreeing  with  the  relative. 
This  is  the  case,  especially  if  the  adjective  be  a  numeral,  a  compa¬ 
rative,  or  superlative;  as,  Inter  jocos,  quos  inconditos  jaciunt,  for 
jocos  inconditos,  quos ,  &c.  “  Amidst  the  rude  jests  which  they  utter.” 
Node,  quam  in  terris  ultimam  egit ,  for  Node  ultima ,  quam,  8cc.  “  The 
last  night  which  he  spent  upon  earth.” 

Obs.  6.  When  a  relative  refers  to  two  or  more  antecedents  taken 
together,  it  agrees  with  them  in  gender  and  number,  in  all  respects 
as  the  adjective  does  with  different  substantives,  as  stated,  §  98 
Obs.  1.  2.  3.  4.  But, 

If  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  relative  plural  takes 
the  first  person  rather  than  the  second,  and  the  second  rather  than 
the  third. 

Exc.  1.  The  relative  sometimes  takes  the  gender  and  number,  not  of 
the  antecedent  noun,  but  of  some  one  synonymous  with  it  or  implied 
in  it;  as,  Earum  rerum  quee  mortales  prima  putant ,  “  Of  those  things 


202 


SYNTAX. - THE  RELATIVE. 


§  99 

which  men  deem  most  important.”  Here  qua  seems  to  agree  with 
negotia,  considered  synonymous  with  rerum. — Raret  ut  catenis  fatale 
monstrum  qua.  The  antecedent  is  monstrum ,  but  qua  agrees  with 
Cleopatra,  the  monster  intended.  Conjuravere  pauci  contra  rem pub- 
licam,  de  qua  (scil  conjuratione.  implied  in  conjuravere ,)  quam  bre • 
vissime  potZro  dicam.  u A  few  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
the  republic,  concerning  which,”  &c. 

Obs.  7.  The  relative  quicunque  and  quivis,  are  sometimes  used  in- 
stead  of  qui,  when  a  general  or  indefinite  term  is  expressed  or  under¬ 
stood  with  the  antecedent ;  as,  qua  sanari  pottrunt  quacunque  ratione 
sanabo  ;  equivalent  to  omni  ratione  quacunque  (possum,)  11  What  can 
be  cured,  I  will  cure  by  every  means  I  can.” 

This  construction  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Greek  o<jy<£.  Gr. 
Gram.  §  135.  7. 

Obs.  8.  When  the  relative  clause  is  connected  with  the  antecedent, 
not  by  the  relative  itself  but  by  some  such  connective  as  cum  or 
quum,  ubi,  si,  &c.  signifying  11  when,”  “  if,”  &c.  the  relative  assumes 
the  character  of  a  personal  or  demonstrative ,  with  or  without  et 
prefixed  ;  as,  etille,  et  hie ,  et  is,  etilli ,  &c.  and  may  generally  be  ren¬ 
dered  by  these  pronouns  ;  as,  qui  quum  legatos  non  admittZret ,  “  and 
when  he  would  not  admit  the  ambassadors  qua  ubi  convenit , 
11  when  it  (sc.  classis  the  fleet,)  assembled.”  Ad  qudrum  initium 
silvarum  quum  Casnr  pervenisset,  “  When  Caesar  had  come  to  the 
beginning  of  these  woods.”  Quam  quum  Romanorum  dux  dare  noU 
let,  “  And  when  the  Roman  general  would  not  grant  this,  (sc.  pacem, 
peace.)  &c. 

CASE  OF  THE  RELATIVE. 

Obs.  9.  The  relative  in  respect  of  case,  is  always  to  be 
considered  as  a  noun,  and  if  no  nominative  come  between  it 
and  the  verb,  the  relative  shall  be  the  nominative  to  the  verb  $ 
as,  Ego,  qui  scribo,  I  who  write.  But, 

If  a  nominative  come  between  the  relative  and  the  verb, 
the  relative  shall  be  of  that  case  which  the  verb  or  noun  fol¬ 
lowing,  or  the  preposition  going  before,  usually  governs  ;  as, 

Reus  quern  colimus,  God  whom  we  worship. 

Cujus  munSre  vivimus,  By  whose  gift  we  live. 

A  quo  facta  sunt  omnia,  By  whom  all  things  were  made. 

Exc.  2.  The  relative  after  the  manner  of  the  Greek,  is  sometimes 
attracted  into  the  case  of  its  antecedent  ;  as,  cum  agas  aliquid  eorum 
quorum  consuesii  &c.  for  eorum  qitje  consuesti,  “  When  you  do  any  of 
those  things  which  you  have  been  accustomed  to  do.”  Raptim  quibus 
quisque  poterat  elatis,  for  (Us)  quje  quisque,  &c.  Those  things  which 
each  one  could  being  hastily  snatched  up. 

Exc.  3.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of 
the  relative  ;  as,  Urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est,  for  urbs  quam  statuo, 
&c.  The  city  which  I  am  building  is  yours.” 

These  are  Greek  constructions  seldom  used  by  Latin  writers.  See 
Greek  Gr.  §  135.  Exc.  9.  10. 


§  100  101  SYNTAX. - NOMINATIVE  CASE 


206 


Obs.  10.  The  relative  adjectives  quot,  quotus,  quantus,  qualis ,  are 
often  construed  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  relative,  having  their  red 
ditives,  or  corresponding  adjectives  tot,totus,tantus ,  talis ,  expressed 
in  the  antecedent  clause  ;  as,  Facies  qualem  dccet  esse  sororum ,  i.  e. 
talis  facies ,  l'  The  features,  such  as  usually  belong  to  sisters.” 
T antce  multitudinis  quantam  capit  urbs,  £‘  Of  as  great  a  multitude  as 
the  city  contains. ” 

When  the  relative  adjective  and  its  redditive  refer  to  different  sub¬ 
stantives,  each  agrees  with  its  own.  But  among  the  poets,  the  rela¬ 
tive  sometimes  agrees  with  the  substantive  in  the  antecedent  clause, 
and  not  with  that  in  its  own. 

Sometimes  the  redditive  is  understood,  and  sometimes  the  relative. 


$  100.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  NOMINATIVE 

CASE. 

The  Nominative  case  is  used, 

1.  To  express  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 

2.  In  apposition  with  another  substantive  in  the  nomina¬ 
tive  (§  97.)  or  predicated  of  it.  §  103. 

3.  In  exclamations;  as,  O  vir  fortis  atque  Amicus  l 


§  101.  THE  VERB  AND  ITS  NOMINATIVE. 

Rule  IV.  A  Verb  agrees  with  its  nominative  in 
number  and  person ;  as, 

Ego  lego,  I  read.  Noslegimus,  We  read. 

Tu  scribis ,  Thou  writest,  Vos  scribitis,  Ye  write. 

Tile  loquitur ,  He  speaks.  Illi  loquuntur,  They  speak. 

EXPLANATION — The  nominative  to  a  verb  is  the  subject  or  thing  spoken  of  in 
the  sentence.  It  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun,  the 
infinitive,  a  gerund,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence.  To  all  these  this  rule  applies  and 
requires  that  the  verb  should  be  in  the  same  number  and  in  the  same  person  as 
the  nominative.  For  person,  see  §  28.  Obs.  1.  2. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  The  nominatives  Ego,  tu,  nos,  vos,  of  the  first  and  second 
person  are  generally  omitted,  being  obvious  from  the  termination  of 
the  verb  ;  also,  of  the  third  person  when  it  is  an  indefinite  word,  or 
may  be  easily  supplied  from  the  context ;  as  ferunt,  they  say,  &.c. 

Chs.  2  The  subject  is  also  omitted  when  the  verb  expresses  the 


SYNTAX. - THE  NOMINATIVE 


20  i 


§  102 


state  of  the  weather,  or  an  operation  of  nature  ;  as,  Fulgurat ,  it 
lightens;  pluit,  it  rains  ;  ningit,  it  snows. 

Obs.  3.  Impersonal  verbs  are  usually  considered  as  without  a  nomi¬ 
native.  Still  they  will  generally  be  found  to  bear  a  relation  to  some 
circumstance,  sentence,  clause  of  a  sentence,  or  infinitive  mood,  simi¬ 
lar  to  that  between  a  verb  and  its  nominative  ;  as,  delectat  me  studere; 
“  it  delights  me  to  study,”  i.  e.  “  to  study  delights  me  ;”  mis  r  ret  me 
tui,  “  I  pity  you  ;”  i,  e.  conditio ,  or  fortuna  tui  mistrct  me ,  “  your  con¬ 
dition  excites  my  pity.  §  144.  Obs.  1. 

Obs.  4.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  when  the  nominative  is  ex 
pressed,  and  sometimes  when  it  is  understood  ;  as,  Nam  ego  Poly- 
dorus,  (sc.  sum,)  “For  I  am  Polydorus.”  Omnia  prceclara  rara, 
(sc.  sunt,)  “  All  excellent  things  are  rare.”  Tumille,  (sc.  respondit ,) 
“  Then  he  replied.”  Verum  hactSnus  hcec,  (sc.  diximus.) 

Obs.  5.  When  the  subject  is  an  infinitive,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence 
the  verb  is  in  the  third  person  singular;  and,  if  a  compound  tense, 
the  participle  is  put  in  the  neuter  gender  ;  as,  incertum  est  quam  longa 
nostrum  cujusque  vita  futura  sit,  “  How  long  any  of  us  shalllive  is  un¬ 
certain.” 

Obs.  6-  The  nominative  is  sometimes  found  with  the  infinitive,  in 
which  case  ccepit  or  cccperunt,  or  some  other  verb  according  to  the 
sense  is  understood  ;  as,  Omnes  invidere  mihi,  “  Every  one  envied 
me.”  The  infinitive  with  the  nominative  before  it  is  so  common  in 
historical  narrative  that  it  is  called  the  historical  infinitive.  Thus 
used,  it  is  translated  as  the  imperfect,  for  which  tense  it  seems  to  be 
used.  §  144.  Obs.  6. 


§  102.  SPECIAL  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS. 

I.  Of  agreement  in  number  and  person . 

Rule  I.  Two  or  more  substantives  singular,  ta¬ 
ken  together,  have  a  verb  in  the  plural :  Taken 
separately,  the  verb  is  usually  singular;  as, 

Together, 

Furor  irdque  mentem  prcecipitant ,  Fury  and  rage  hurry  on  my  mind. 

Separately, 

Si  Socrates  aut  JlntisthSnes  die  tret ,  If  Socrates  orAntistlienes  should  say. 

Obs.  1.  To  both  parts  of  this  rule  however,  and  especially  to  the  first 
there  are  many  exceptions.  If  one  of  the  nominatives  be  plural,  the 
verb  is  commonly  plural.  But  sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the 
nominative  nearest  it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest,  especially  when 
each  of  the  nominatives  is  preceded  by  et  or  turn,  or  they  denote  things 
without  life  ;  as,  Mens  enim,  et  ratio,  et  consilium  in  senibus  est. 

When  the  nominatives  are  disjunctively  connected  by  aid,  neque, 
See.  the  verb  is  sometimes  plural ;  and  it  is  always  so  when  the 
substantives  are  of  different  persons  ;  as,  neque  ego,  neque  Ccesar 
habiti  nsssmus. 


SYNTAX. - THE  NOMINATIVE. 


205 


§  103 

Obs.  2.  A  substantive  in  the  nominative  singular, coupled  with  another 
in  the  ablative  by  cum,  may  have  a  plural  verb  ;  as,  Remo  cum  fratre 
Quirinus  jura  da  bunt. 

Obs.  3.  When  the  nominatives  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb 
is  commonly  plural,  and  takes  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second 
and  the  second  rather  than  the  third  ;  as,  Si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego 
et  Cicero  valemus ,  “If  you  and  Tullia  are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are 
well.” 

But  sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  nominative,  and  is 
understood  to  the  rest,  and  always  so  when  the  verb  has  different 
modifications  with  each  nominative  ;  as,  ego  misere ,  tu  feliciter 
vivis. 

Rule  II.  A  collective  noun  expressing  many 
as  one  whole  has  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  as, 

Populus  me  sibilat,  The  people  hiss  at  me. 

Senatus  in  curiam  venii ,  The  Senate  came  into  the  Senate-house. 

But  when  it  expresses  many  as  individuals,  the 
verb  must  be  plural ;  as, 

Pars  epulis  ontrant  mensas,  Part  load  the  tables  with  food. 

Turba  ruunt ,  The  crowd  rush. 

Veniunt  leve  vulgus  euntque ,  The  fickle  populace  come  and  go. 

Obs.  4.  To  both  parts  of  this  rule  there  are  also  exceptions,  and  in 
some  cases  it  seems  indifferent  whether  the  verb  be  in  the  singular  or 
plural,  sometimes  both  are  joined  with  the  same  word  ;  as,  Turba  ex 
eo  loco  dilabebutur,  refracturosque  carcerem  minabantur . 

Obs.  5.  Uterque,  quisque,  pars. ..  .pars,  alius,. — alius,  and  al¬ 
ter  ...  .alter,  on  account  of  the  idea  of  plurality  involved,  frequent¬ 
ly  have  the  verb  in  the  plural.  This  construction  may  be  explained 
on  the  principle  mentioned,  §  98.  Exc.  4.  where  see  examples. 


§  103.  OF  THE  NOMINATIVE  AFTER  THE  VERB. 

Rule  V.  Any  verb  may  have  the  same  case 
after  it  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer  to  the 
same  thing;  as, 

Ego  sum  discipulus,  I  am  a  scholar. 

Tuvocaris  Joannes ,  Thou  art  called  John. 

Ilia  incedit  regrnd,  She  walks  (as)  a  queen. 

EXPLANATION  : — Under  this  rule  the  nominative  before  the  verb  is  the  sub¬ 
ject  or  thing  spoken  of,  the  nominative  after  it  is  the  predicate  or  the  thing  as¬ 
serted  of  the  subject.  The  verb  is  the  copula  connecting  the  one  with  the  other 
and  is  usually  a  substantive  or  neuter  verb,  a  passive  verb  of  naming,  judging, 
appointing,  &c. 

This  rule  applies  to  the  accusative  and  dative  before  and  after  the  Jnfinitiv* 
of  the  above  verbs.  See  Ohe.  5.  6.  7.  8, 


206 


SYNTAX. - THE  NOMINATIVE. 


§  103 


OBSERVATIONS 

Obs.  I.  Any  of  the  above  verbs  between  two  nominatives  of  different 
numbers,  commonly  agrees  in  number  with  the  former  or  subject ; 
as,  Dos  est  decern  talenta,  “  Her  dowry  is  ten  talents.”  Ter.  Omnia 
pontus  erajit,  “  All  was  sea.”  Ovid.  But  sometimes  with  the  latter 
or  predicate  ;  as,  Amantium  ircc,  amdris  integratio  est ,  “  The  quarrels 
of  lovers  is  a  renewal  of  love.” 

So  also  when  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  an  adjective,  adjec¬ 
tive  pronoun,  or  a  participle  in  the  predicate,  commonly  agrees  with 
the  subject  of  the  verb  ;  as,  oppidum  appellatum  est  Possidonia : — But 
sometimes  with  the  predicate  ;  as  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  dicenda 
est.  Cic. 

Obs.  2.  When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or 
participle  without  a  substantive,  it  agrees  with  the  subject  before  the 
verb  according  to  Rule  II.  §  98.  Except  as  noticed  in  the  same  sec¬ 
tion,  Obs.  6. 

Obs.  3.  When  the  subject  is  of  the  second  person,  and  the  vocative 
stands  before  the  verb,  the  adjective  or  participle  will  usually  be  in 
the  nominative,  according  to  the  rule;  as,  esto,  tu,  Ccesar  amicus ;  but 
sometimes  it  is  put  in  the  vocative  ;  as,  Quibus  Hector  ab  oris  ex • 
pedate  venis. — Virg.  for  expedatus.  Hence  the  phrase,  Made  vir- 
tutc  esto,  for  madus. 

Obs.  4.  The  noun  opus  commonly  rendered  11  needful,”  is  often  used 
as  a  predicate  after  sum  •  as,  Dux  nobis  opus  est,  A  leader  is  wanted 
by  us.”* 

Note. — Such  expressions  as  Audivi  hocpuer  ; — Rempublicam  defendi 
adolescens, — Sapiens  nil  facit  invitus,  belong  more  properly  to  Rule 
I.  and  II.  than  to  this. 

Obs.  5.  The  accusative  or  dative  before  the  infinitive  under  this 
Rule,  requires  the  same  case  after  it  in  the  predicate  ;  as. 

Novimus  te  esse  fortem,  We  know  that  thou  art  brave. 

Mihi  negligenti  non  esse  licet,  I  am  not  allowed  to  be  negligent. 

Obs.  6.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same  with  the  sub- 
ject  of  the  preceding  verb,  it  is  often  omitted,  in  which  case  the  pre¬ 
dicate  after  the  infinitive  is  in  the  nominative  agreeing  with  the  pre¬ 
ceding  subject,  or  in  the  Accusative  agreeing  with  the  subject  of  the 
infinitive  understood  ;  as,  Cupio  did  dodus,  or  cupio  did  doctum , 
i.  e.  me  did  doctum,  “  I  desire  to  be  called  learned.”  The  first  of 
these  is  a  Greek  construction,  and  seldom  used  by  prose  writers. 
See  Gr.  Gram.  §  175.  3. 

Obs.  7.  When  the  infinitive  of  such  verbs  has  a  dative  before  it,  it 
may  be  followed  either  by  a  dative  or  an  accusative  ;  as,  Licet  mihi 
esse  beato  ;  or,  licet  mihi  esse  beatum,  “  I  may  be  happy.”  In  the 
first  case  beato  agrees  with  mihi ;  in  the  second,  beatum  agrees  with 
me,  to  be  supplied  as  the  subject  of  esse.  Sometimes  when  the  sen¬ 
tence  is  indefinite,  the  dative  also  is  understood  ;  as,  licet  esse  beatum , 
(sc.  alicui ,)  11  One  may  be  happy.”  The  first  of  these  forms  also  is 
a  Greek  construction.  See  Gr.  Gram.  §  175.  Obs.  5. 

Obs.  8.  This  variety  of  case  after  the  infinitive  is  admissible  only 
with  the  nominative,  dative,  and  accusative.  The  other  cases  before 
the  infinitive  have  the  accusative  after  it,  agreeing  with  the  subject 
of  the  infinitive  understood  ;  as,  interest  omnium  (se)  esse  bonos 


§  104 -5-6 


SYNTAX. - OF  GOVERNMENT. 


207 


§  104.  OF  GOVERNMENT 

1.  Government  is  the  power  which  one  word  has  over  another  de¬ 
pending  upon  it,  requiring  it  to  be  put  in  a  certain  case ,  mood ,  or  least 

2.  The  words  subject  to  government  are  nouns  and  verbs. 

3.  The  words  governing  or  affecting  these  in  their  case,  mood  or 
tense,  are  nouns,  adjectives,  ‘pronouns,  verbs,  and  words  indeclinable. 

4.  To  the  Syntax  of  nouns  belongs  all  that  part  of  Syntax  relating 
to  the  government  of  Case.  Every  thing  else  in  government  belongs 
to  the  Syntax  of  the  verb,  §  137,  et  seq. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  NOUN. 

In  this  part  of  Grammar  under  the  term  noun  or  substantive ,  is 
comprehended  every  thing  used  in  Latin  Grammar  as  such,  namely, 
nouns,  personal  pronouns,  adjective  pronouns  used  personally,  ad¬ 
jectives  without  substantives,  gerunds,  together  with  infinitives,  and 
substantive  clauses  used  as  nouns. 

The  construction  of  the  oblique  cases  depends  in  general  upon 
the  particular  ideas  expressed  by  the  cases  themselves  as  they  are 
stated,  §  7.  3.  or  hereafter  mentioned  under  each  case. 


$  105.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  GENITIVE. 

The  Genitive,  as  its  name  imports,  with  the  meaning  of  the  word  con¬ 
nects  the  idea  of  origin,  and  hence  that  of  property  or  possession.  It 
is  used  in  general  to  limit  the  signification  of  another  word, 
with  which  it  is  joined,  by  representing  it  as  something  originating 
with,  possessed  by,  or  relating  to,  that  which  the  genitive  or  limiting 
word  expresses  ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  governed  by  the  word  so  limited, 
i.  e.  ,*  the  word  limited  requires  the  word  limiting  it  to  be  put  in  the 
Genitive  case. 

The  Genitive  is  governed  by  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Verbs  ;  and 
also  is  used  to  express  circumstances  of  place ,  quantity  or  degree. 


i  106.  THE  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  NOUNS. 

Rule  VI.  One  substantive  governs  another  in 
the  genitive,  when  the  latter  substantive  limits  the 
signification  of  the  former ;  as, 

Amor  glories,  The  love  of  glory. 

Lex  natures,  The  law  of  nature. 


SYNTAX. - THE  GENITIVE. 


20S 


§  106 


EXPLANATION. — Under  this  rule  the  two  substantives  must  be  of  different 
Signification,  and  the  one  used  to  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  other.  Thus  in  the 
first  example  Amor,  alone,  means  “  love”  in  general ;  but  the  term  glories,  joined 
with  u,  restricts  its  meaning  here  to  a  particular  object  u  glory,”  and  so  of 
other  examples. 

N.  B.  When  a  noun  is  limited  by  another  of  the  same  signification ,  it  is  put 
in  the  same  case  by  Rule  I. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  When  the  governing  noun  expresses  a  feeling  or  act,  &c. 
inherent  in ,  or  exercised  by  the  noun  governed  in  the  genitive,  the 
genitive  is  said  to  be  subjective  or  active.  But  when  the  governing 
noun  denotes  something  of  which  the  noun  governed  is  the  object, 
the  genitive  is  then  said  to  be  objective  or  passive.  Thus  in  the 
phrase  Providentia  Dei,  the  genitive  is  necessarily  subjective  or  ac¬ 
tive  because  providentia  expresses  an  act  or  operation  of  which  God 
is  the  subject,  and  of  which  he  cannot  be  the  object.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  phrase  timor  Dei,  11  the  fear  of  God  ;”  the  genitive  Dei 
is  necessarily  objective  or  passive ,  because  timor  denotes  a  feeling  in 
some  other  subject,  of  which  God  is  the  object,  and  cannot  be  the  sub¬ 
ject.  Sometimes  the  meaning  of  both  substantives  is  such,  that  the 
genitive  may  be  either  active  or  passive  ;  thus,  when  the  expression 
Amor  Dei  means  the  love  which  God  has  to  us,  Dei  is  active  or  sub¬ 
jective  ;  but  when  it  means  the  love  which  we  have  to  God,  Dei  is 
passive  or  oojcctive.  In  such  cases  the  sense  in  which  the  genitive  is 
used  must  be  determined  by  the  author’s  meaning. 

Obs.  2.  Hence  it  often  happens  that  a  noun  governs  two  substan¬ 
tives,  one  of  which  limits  it  subjectively ,  and  the  other  objectively ;  as, 
Agamemnonis  belli  gloria,  “  Agamemnon’s  glory  in  war,”  Nep. 
Here  Agamemnonis  limits  gloria  subjectively,  and  belli  limits  it  ob 
jectively.  So,  Illius  administrate  provincice,  Cic. 

Obs.  3.  The  governing  noun  is  often  omitted,  but  only,  however, 
when  the  expression  itself  readily  suggests  the  noun  to  be  supplied; 
as,  Ad  Diance,  sc.  cedem;  or  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied  from  the 
preceding  or  following  words. 

Obs.  4.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun  governed 
by  the  noun,  it  is  more  common  to  use  the  possessive  adjective  pro¬ 
noun  agreeing  with  it;  as ,meus  pater,  rather  than  pater  mei.  So  also 
instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  noun,  a  possessive  adjective  is  sometimes 
used;  as,  Causa  regia,  for  regis  causa;  Herilis  filius,  for  filius  heri. 

Obs.  5.  The  dative  is  often  used  instead  of  the  genitive,  to  limit 
a  noun  as  to  its  object;  as,  Fratri  cedes ,  for  fratris,  the  house  of  my 
brother  ;  preesidium  reis,  a  defence  to  the  accused.  For  this  construc¬ 
tion  see  §  110. 

Rule  VII.  A  substantive  added  to  another  to 
express  a  property  or  quality  belonging  to  it,  is 
put  in  the  genitive  or  ablative ;  as, 

Vir  summ.ee  prudent  ice ,  or  summa  prudent  id.  A  man  of  great  wisdom. 
Puer  probce  ind&lis,  or  proba  inddle  A  boy  of  a  good  disposition. 


5  106 


SYNTAX. - THE  GENITIVE. 


209 


EXPLANATION. — Under  this  rule  the  latter  substantive  in  the  genitive  or 
ablative  must  denote  a  part  or  property  of  the  former,  otherwise  it  does  not 
belong  to  this  rule.  The  latter  substantive,  also,  has  commonly  an  adjective 
joined  with  it,  as  in  the  above  examples,  though  this  is  not  essential  to  the  rule 
and  sometimes  it  is  found  without  it;  as,  Homo  nihili. 

Obs.  6.  There  is  no  certain  rule  by  which  to  determine  when  the 
genitive  is  to  be  used,  or  when  the  ablative,  though  in  some  phrases 
we  find  the  genitive  only  is  used  ;  as,  vir  imi  subscllii,  u  a  person  of 
the  lowest  rank;”  homo  nullivs  stipendii,  “a  man  of  no  experi¬ 
ence  in  war,”  Sallust,  Magni  formica  laboris,  &c.  In  others  the  ab¬ 
lative  only;  as,  Es  bono  ammo,  Be  of  good  courage.  Sometimes 
both  are  used  in  the  same  sentence;  as,  Adolescens  eximia  spe,  sum - 
mce  virtutis.  In  prose  the  ablative  is  more  common  than  the  geni¬ 
tive. 

Obs.  7.  Sometimes,  instead  of  the  construction  under  this  rule,  the 
adjective  is  put  with  the  former  substantive;  as,  Vir  gravitate  et  pru - 
denlid  prcestans ,  Cic.  So,  Vir  prcestantis  ingenii,  prcestanti  ingenio, 
prcestans  ingenio,  and  (poetically)  prcestans  ingenii,  are  all  used. 
And  sometimes,  when  the  adjective  takes  the  case  of  the  former  sub¬ 
stantive,  the  latter  substantive,  especially  by  the  poets,  is  by  a  Greek 
construction  put  in  the  accusative,  instead  of  the  genitive  or  ablative; 
as,  Miles  fractus  membra,  instead  of  membris.  Os  humerosque  simi- 
lis  deo,  instead  of  Ore  humerisque  similis  deo.  The  accusative,  in 
this  construction,  may  be  regarded  as  governed  by  secundum,  or  quod 
attinet  ad,  meaning  u  according  to,”  or  “  in  respect  of,”  & c.  (§  12 8. 
Exc.  and  Note.)  and  corresponding  to  the  Greek  xara.  See  Gr. 
Gram.  §  142,  Obs  11. 

Adjectives  taken  as  Substantives. 

Rule  VIII.  An  adjective  in  the  neuter  gender 
without  a  substantive  governs  the  genitive;  as, 

Multum  pccunice,  Much  money. 

Id  negotii,  That  business. 

EXPLANATION. — Under  this  rule,  the  adjective,  without  a  substantive  ex¬ 
pressed,  is  regarded  as  a  substantive,  and  so  capable  of  being  limited  by  the  geni¬ 
tive,  as  under  Rule  VI. 

Obs.  8.  The  adjectives  thus  used  are  generally  such  as  signify 
quantity;  multum.  plus,  plurimum,  tantum ,  quantum.  The  pronouns, 
hoc,  id,  illud,  istud,  quod,  quid,  with  its  compounds.  Also  summum, 
ultlmum,  extremum,  dimidium,  medium,  aliud ,  See.  To  these  may  be 
added  several  neuter  adjectives  in  the  plural,  used  in  a  partitive 
sense;  as,  angusta  vidrum ,  the  narrow  parts  of  the  road,  opaca  locd‘ 
rum ;  antlqua  foederum ;  cuncta  campdrum,  &c. 

Note. — Such  adjectives  followed  by  a  genitive  are  almost  always  either  in  the 
nominative  or  accusative 

Obs.  9.  Most  of  these  adjectives  may  have  their  substantives  with 
which  they  agree;  but  the  more  common  construction  is  with  the 
genitive;  as,  tantum  spei,  so  much  hope;  quid  muliSris i  what  kind 
of  a  woman?  aliquid  formes  ;  quid  hoc  rei  estf 

18* 


210 


SYNTAX. - THE  GENITIVE. 


§  107 


Obs.  10.  Quod  and  quicquid  followed  by  a  genitive,  include  the  idea 
of  universality  ;  as,  quod  agri ,  “  what  of  land,”  i.  e.  “  all  the  land;” 
quicquid  civium,  “  whatever  of  citizens,”  i.  e.  “  all  the  citizens 
quicquid  deoruin,  li  all  the  gods,” 

Obs.  11.  Opus  and  usus,  signifying  11  need,”  sometimes  govern  the 
genitive  ;  as,  Argenti  opus  fuit ,  u  there  was  need  of  money.” — Liv. 
Procemii  non  semper  usus  est ,  u  There  is  not  always  need  of  an  intro¬ 
duction.”  Quinct.  In  general,  these  words  govern  the  ablative.  §  118. 


R.  XXII. 


$  107.  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES. 

Rule  IX.  Verbal  adjectives,  or  such  as  imply 
an  operation  of  mind,  govern  the  genitive;  as, 


Desirous  of  glory. 
Ignorant  of  fraud. 
Mindful  of  favors. 


Avidus  glorice, 
Ignarus  fraudis, 
Memor  beneficidrum , 


EXPLANATION. — The  genitive  in  this  construction  as  in  §  10G.  is  used  to 
limit  the  application  of  the  general  term  or  adjective  by  which  it  is  governed, 
and  may  be  rendered  by  o/,  or,  in  respect  of  prefixed;  thus,  in  the  first  example, 
Avidus  expresses  the  possession  of  desire  generally ;  the  genitive  glories  limits 
it  to  a  certain  object,  “glory,”  and  so  of  the  other  examples. 


OBSERVATIONS 


Obs.  1,  Adjectives  governing  the  genitive  under  this 
rule  are, 

1st.  Verbals  in  AX ;  as,  capax,  edax ,  ferax,  fugax,  pervicax , 
tenax,  Sec. 

2d.  Participials  in  NS  and  TUS  ;  as,  amans ,  appetens,  cupiens , 
patiens,  impatiens,  sitiens ;  consultus,  doctus ,  expertus,  inex- 
pertus,  insuetus ,  insolltus.  Sec. 

3d.  Adjectives  denoting  various  affections  of  the  mind  ;  such  as, 

1.  Desire  and  Disgust,  as,  avarus,  avidus ,  cupidus,  studidsus ; 
fastididsus ,  &c.  with  many  other  verbals  in  -idus,  and  - dsus . 

2.  Knowledge  and  Ignorance  :  as,  callidus,  certus,  conscius , 
gnarus ,  peritus,  prudens ,  See.; — Ignarus,  incertus,  inscius,  m- 
prudens ,  imperitus,  rudis,  Sec.  3.  Memory  or  Forgetful¬ 
ness  ;  as,  memor ,  immZmor,  Sec.  4.  Care  and  Negligence  ; 
as,  anxius ,  curidsus,  solicitus ,  providus,  diligens  ; — incuridsus 
securus,  negligejos,  Sec.  5.  Fear  and  Confidence  ;  as,  pavi • 
dus,  timidus,  trepidus ; — impavidus,  interritus,  Sec.  6.  Guilt 
and  Innocence  ;  as,  noxius,  reus,  suspectus,  compertus  ; — in- 
noxius,  innticens,  insons ,  Sec. 


THE  GENITIVE. 


211 


SYNTAX. - 


4Ui.  To  these  may  be  added  many  other  adjectives  of  similar  sig¬ 
nification,  which  are  limited  by,  or  govern  such  genitives  ;  as 
aaimi,  ingenii ,  mentis,  irce,  miliiice ,  belli,  laboris,  rerum ,  cevi 
morum ,  and  fidei. 

Obs.  2.  Verbals  in  NS  are  used  both  as  adjectives  and  participles, 
hut  usually  with  some  difference  of  meaning  ;  as,  patiens  algoris, 

capable  of  bearing  cold  ;”  patiens  algorem,  “  actually  bearing  cold;” 
amans  virtiitis ,  ‘  loving  virtue,” — spoken  of  the  disposition  ;  amans 
virtutem,  “  loving  virtue,” — spoken  of  the  act.  So  also,  doctus 
grammaticcE, 11  skilled  in  grammar;”  doctus  grammaticam ,  “  one  who 
has  studied  grammar.” 

Obs .  3.  Many  of  these  adjectives  vary  their  construction 
so  that  instead  of  the  genitive  they  sometimes  take  after  them, 

1st.  An  infinitive  clause  ;  as,  certus  ire ,  “  determined  to  go.”  Ovid. 
Cantdre  periti.  Virg.  Anxius  quid  opus  facto  sit.  Sail. 

2d.  An  accusative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  avidior  ad  rem ;  ani¬ 
mus  capax  ad  prcecepta ;  ad  fraudem  callidus ;  potens  in  res 
bellicosas,  &c. 

3d.  An  ablative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  Avidus  in  pecuniis, 
"  Eager  in  regard  to  money.”  Anxius  defama  ;  super  scelSre 
suspectus;  See., 

4th.  An  ablative  wdthout  a  preposition  ;  as.  Arte  rudis,  “  Rude  in 
art ;”  regni  crimine  insons  ;  preestans  ingenio. 

Obs.  4.  Some  adjectives  usually  governing  the  dative,  sometimes 
govern  the  genitive,  such  as  similis ,  dissimilis,  Sec.  See  §  111.  Obs.  2 


Rule  X.  Partitives  and  words  placed  partitive- 
1  y,  comparatives,  superlatives,  interrogatives,  and 
some  numerals, govern  the  genitive  plural;  as, 


Aliqu is  ph ilosophorum , 
Senior  fratrum , 
Doctissimus  Romandrum , 
Quis  nostrum  ? 

Una  musarum, 

Octdvus  sapientium, 


Some  one  of  the  philosophers 
The  elder  of  the  brothers. 

The  most  learned  of  the  Romans. 
Which  of  us? 

One  of  the  muses. 

The  eighth  of  the  wise  men. 


EXPLANATION. — A  Partitive  is  a  word  which  signifies  a  part  of  any  uum- 
Der  of  persons  or  things,  in  contradistinction  to  the  whole.  A  word  placed 
partitively,  is  one  which  though  it  does  not  signify  a  part,  yet  is  sometimes 
used  to  distinguish  apart  from  the  whole;  as,  expediti  mil  Hum,  the  light  armed 
(of  the)  soldiers.  The  partitive,  when  an  adjective,  takes  the  gender  of  the 
whole  and  governs  it  in  the  genitive  plural ;  or,  if  a  collective  noun,  in  the  geni¬ 
tive  singular ;  and  in  this  case  the  partitive  takes  the  gender  of  the  noun  under¬ 
stood  :  as,  doctissimus  sues  cetatis 


212 


SYNTAX. 


THE  GENITIVE. 


§  107 


Obs.  5.  Partitives  are  such  words  ;  as,  ullus,  nullus,  solus,  alius 
uter,  uter que,  neuter,  alter,  aliquis,  quidam,  quisquis,  quicunque,  quisl 
quit  quot  ?  tot,  aliquot,  nonnulli,  plerique,  multi,  pauci,  medius ,  See. 

Words  are  used  partitively  in  such  expressions  as  the  following  ; 
superi  deorum,  sancte  deorum,,  degentres  canum,  piscium  femincc.  To 
which  add,  omnis,  cunctus,  nemo  ;  as,  Omnes  Macedonum  ;  nemo  nos¬ 
trum. 

Obs.  6.  The  comparative  with  the  genitive  denotes  one  of  two,  the 
superlative  denotes  a  part  of  a  number  greater  than  two;  as,  Major  fra- 
trum,  the  elder  of  two  brothers  :  maximus  fratrum,  the  eldest  of  three 
or  more.  So  also  uter,  alter  and  neuter  generally  refer  to  two,  quit, 
alius,  and  nullus,  to  more  than  two  ;  as,  uter  nostrum,  which  of  is 
(two?)  qu-is  nostrum,  which  of  us  (three  or  more?)  Nostrum  and 
vestrinn  are  used  after  partitives,  seldom  nostri  and  vestri. 

Obs.  7.  The  partitive  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  Fies  nobilium 
tu  quoque  fontium,  (sc.  unus .)  Hor. 

Obs.  8.  Instead  of  the  genitive  after  the  partitive,  the  ablative  is 
often  found  governed  by  de,  e,  ex,  or  in  ;  or  the  accusative  with  inter 
or  ante  ;  as,  unus  e  stoicis  •  ante  omnes  pulcherrimus  ;  inter  reges  opu¬ 
lent  issimus. 

Rule  XI.  Adjectives  of  plenty  or  want  govern 
the  genitive  or  ablative ;  as, 

Plenusirce  or  ira,  Full  of  anger. 

Inops  rationis,  or  ratione,  Void  of  reason. 

EXPLANATION. — As  in  Rule  IX.  the  adjective  here  is  a  general  term,  but 
limited  in  its  application  by  the  genitive  or  ablative  following  it. 

Obs.  9.  Among  adjectives  denoting  plenty  or  want,  a  considerable 
variety  of  construction  is  found. 

Some  govern  the  genitive  only  :  as,  benignus,  exsors,  impos,  impti- 
tens,  irritus ,  libcralis,  munificus,  &c. 

Some  govern  the  ablative  only  ;  as,  beatus,  muiilus,  iumidus ,  iurgi- 
dus. 

Some  govern  the  genitive  more  frequently ;  as,  compos,  consors, 
egenus,  exheercs,  expers,  fertilis ,  indigus,  parcus,  pauper,  prodigus , 
sterilis,  prosper ,  insatiatus,  insatiabilis. 

Some  govern  the  ablative  more  frequently  ;  as,  abundans,  alienus 
cassus ,  ext  orris ,  fir  mus ,  foetus,  frequens ,  gravis,  gravidus,  jejunus , 
infirmus,  liber,  locuples,  Icetus,  mactus,  nudus,  onustus,  orbus,  pol¬ 
lens ,  satidtus,  tenuis,  truncus ,  viduus. 

Some  govern  the  genitive  or  ablative  indifferently  ;  as,  copiosus 
dives ,  fecundus ,  ferax,  immunis.  indnis ,  inops,  largus,  modicus,  im - 
modicus,  nimius,  opulentus,  plenus ,  potens,  purus,  refertus,  satur , 
vacuus,  uber. 

Obs.  10.  Many  of  these  adjectives  are  sometimes  limited  by  a  pres 
position  and  its  case  ;  as,  Locus  copiosus  a  frumento.  Cic.  Ab  omni 
re  paratus.  Id.  Parcus  in  victu.  Plin.  In  affect  ibus  potent  issimus. 
Quinct.  Potens  in  res  bellicas.  Liv.  &c. 


SYNTAX. - THE  GENITIVE. 


213 


§  108 


$  108.  THE  GENITIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS. 
Rule  XII.  Sum  governs  the  genitive  of  a  per¬ 
son  or  thing  to  which  its  subject  belongs  as  a  pos¬ 
session,  property,  or  duty;  as, 

Est  regis,  It  belongs  to  the  king. 

Hominis  est  err  are, ,  It  is  characteristic  of  man  to  err. 

EXPLANATION. — The  genitive  in  this  construction  is  supposed  to  be  governed 
by  the  substantive,  officium,  munus ,  res,  negotium,  opus,  &c.  understood. 
(When  it  is  expressed,  the  genitive  is  governed  by  it  according  to  Rule  VI.) 
The  verb  is  in  the  third  person, — often  has  an  infinitive  or  clause  for  its  nomi¬ 
native,  and  may  be  rendered  in  any  way  by  which  the  sense  is  expressed ;  si  ch 

as,  it  belongs  to, — is  the  property — the  part — the  duty — the  peculiarity — the  cha¬ 
racter  of,  &c.  The  following  are  examples, 

Insipientis  est  dicere  non  putdram ,  It  is  the  part  of  a  fool,  &c. 
Militum  est  suo  duel  parere,  It  is  the  duty  of  soldiers,  &e. 

Lauddre  se  vani  est ,  It  is  the  mark  of  a  vain  man,  8cc 

So  the  following — Arrogantis  est  negligtre  quid  de  se  quisque  senti - 

at ,  Cic.  Pecus  est  Melibcei.  Virg.  Hcec  sunt  hominis,  Ter.  Paupe¬ 
ris  est  numerdre  pecus ,  Ov.  Temeritas  est  Jlorentis  cetatis ,  prudentia 
senectutis,  Cic.  Antiqui  moris  fuit ,  Plin. 

Obs.  1.  Sometimes  the  genitive  may  be  governed  by  the  preceding 
word  repeated  after  est;  as,  Hoc  pecus  est  (pecus)  Meliboei,  Hie  liber 
est  (liber)  fratr is.  Sometimes  the  genitive  depends  on  some  other 
substantive  understood ;  as,  Quce  res  evertendee  reipublicce  solent  esse 
(instrumenta.)  Regium  imperium  quod  initio  conservandce  libertatis 
(causa,)  et  augendee  reipublicce  (institution)  fucrat. 

Obs.  2.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  the  nomina¬ 
tive  neuter  of  the  possessive  is  commonly  used,  agreeing  with  offici¬ 
um,  munus  &c.  understood;  as,  Tuum  est,  it  is  your  duty;  instead  of 
tui;  meum  est,  it  is  my  part ;  instead  of  mei. 

Obs.  3.  If  the  verb  be  in  the  infinitive,  the  posssessive  pronoun 
must  be  in  the  accusative;  as,  Scio  tuum  esse,  “  I  know  it  is  your 
duty;”  and  if  a  substantive  be  expressed,  the  possessive  must  agree 
with  it  in  gender,  number,  and  case;  as,  Hce  partes  fuerunt  tuce , 
(equivalent  to  tuum  fuit,  or  tudrum  par  tium  fuit.)  It  was  your  part. 

Rule  XIII.  Misereor ,  miser esco ,  and  satago,  go¬ 
vern  the  genitive ;  as, 

Miserere  civium  tuorum,  Pity  your  countrymen. 

Satdgit  rerum  suurum,  He  is  busy  with  his  own  affairs. 

EXPLANATION. — The  genitive,  in  this  Construction,  has  been  supposed  to 
be  governed  by  such  a  noun  as  negotio,  causa,  re,  &c.  understood;  governed  by 
the  prepositions  de,  a,  in,  or  the  like  ;  as,  Miserere  de  causa  civium,  Ac.  We 
consider  it  better,  however,  to  regard  these  genitives  as  governed  directly  by 
he  verb,  and  expressing,  as  in  Greek,  tiie  cause  or  origin  of  the  feeling  which 
die  verb  expresses.  See  Gr.  Gram.  §  IU.  Rule  XIV 


214 


SYNTAX. - THE  GENITIVE. 


§  109 

Obs.  4.  Many  other  verbs  denoting  some  affection  of  the  mind  are 
sometimes  followed  by  a  genitive,  denoting  that,  with  regard  to  which, 
or  on  account  of  which,  the  affection  exists.  These  are  ango,  dccipior, 
desipio,  discrucior ,  fallo,  fallor ,  fastidio ,  invideo ,  lector ,  miror , 
pendeo,  studeo,  vereor,  &c.  Thus,  Absurde  facis  qui  angas  te  animi, 
Plaut.  Discrucior  animi.  Ter.  Fallibar  sermonis.  Plaut.  Lector 
maldrum.  Virg.  These  verbs  have  commonly  a  different  construc¬ 
tion.  Note  2. 

Note  1. — The  first  and  second  of  these  examples  resemble  the  peculiar  Greek 
construction,  explained  Gr.  Gram.  §  148.  Obs.  2. 

Obs.. 5.  Several  verbs  especially  among  the  poets,  are  found  with 
the  genitive  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  construction,  Gr.  Gram.  §144. 
Rule  XVI.  and  XVII.  These  are  abstineo,  desino ,  desisto,  quiesco, 
regno  ;  also,  adipiscor ,  condico ,  credo ,  frustror,  furo,  laudo ,  libero , 
levo,  participo,  prohibeo ;  thus,  abstineto  irarum.  Hor.  Desine  que- 
relarum.  Hor.  Regnavit  populorum.  Hor.  Levas  me  laborum.  Plaut. 

Note  2. — All  these  verbs,  however,  in  Obs.  4  and  5,  have  for  the  most  part  a 
different  construction,  being  followed  sometimes  by  the  accusative  as  an  active 
verb,  and  more  frequently  by  the  accusative  or  ablative  with  a  preposition. 

Rule  XIV.  Recordor ,  mem  mi,  reminis  cor,  and 
obliviscor,  govern  the  genitive  or  accusative ;  as, 

Recordor  lectidnis,  or  lectionem,  I  remember  the  lesson. 

Obliviscor  injuries ,  or  injuriam,  I  forget  an  injury. 

EXPLANATION. — When  these  verbs  are  followed  by  an  accusative,  they  are 
considered  active,  and  fall  under  Rule  XX.  But  when  a  genitive  follows  them 
they  are  regarded  as  neuter,  and  the  genitive  denotes  that  in  regard  to  which 
the  memory,  &c.  is  exercised. 

Obs.  6.  These  verbs  are  often  construed  with  an  infinitive  or  some 
part  of  a  sentence,  instead  of  the  genitive  or  accusative  ;  as,  Memini 
videre  virgtnem.  Ter. 

Obs.  7.  Recordor  and  memini ,  signifying  to  remember ,  are  some¬ 
times  followed  by  an  ablative  with  de.  And  memini  signifying  to 
make  mention  of ,  has  a  genitive  or  an  ablative  with  de.  Ei  venit  in 
mentem .  being  equivalent  to  recordatur ,  has  a  genitive  after  it ;  as, 
Ei  venit  in  mentem  potestatis  tuee. 

N.  B.  For  the  genitive  with  verbs  of  accusing ,  See  §  122, 

with  verbs  of  valuing ,  §  122.  R.  XXVIII;  with  Passive 
verbs,  §126;  with  Impersonal  verbs,  §113;  with  Adverbs, 
§  135 ;  denoting  place,  §  130,  R.  XXXVI  and  XXXIX. 


§  109.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  DATIVE. 

1.  The  Dative  is  used  to  express  the  remote  object  to  which  any 
quality  or  action,  or  any  state  or  condition  of  things  tends,  or,  to 
which  they  refer.  This  tendency  is  usually  expressed  in  English  by 
the  words  TO  or  FOR.  Hence, 


§  110-11 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


215 


2.  The  Dative  in  Latin  is  governed  by,  or  denotes  the  object  referred 
to,  by  Nouns ,  Adjectives  and  Verbs. 

3.  A  use  of  the  Dative  common  in  Greek  usually  called  the  Da¬ 
tive  Redundant ,  has  also  been  imitated  in  Latin.  See  Gr  Gram. 
§  145.  2.  The  following  are  examples.  Quo  tantum  mihi  dexter  abxs. 
Virg.  Fur  mihi  es.  Plaut.  T ong ilium  mihi  edux it.  Cic.  Ubi  nunc 
nobis  dais  ille  magister?  Virg.  Ecce  tibi  Sebosus.  Cic.  Suo  sibi 
glxdio  hunc  jugulo. 


U10.  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule  XV.  Substantives  frequently  govern  the 
dative  of  their  object ;  as, 

Hostis  virtutibus,  An  enemy  to  virtue. 

Exitium  pecori,  Destruction  to  the  flock. 

Obtemperantia  legibus,  Obedience  to  the  laws. 

EXPLANATION. — Under  this  rule,  the  governing  substantive  generally  de¬ 
notes  an  affection,  or  some  advantage,  or  disadvantage,  or  act,  which  is  limited 
as  to  its  object  by  the  dative  following  it,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

Obs.  1.  Rule.  The  dative  of  the  possessor  is  governed  by 
substantives  denoting  the  thing  possessed  ;  as, 

Ei  venit  in  mentem ,  It  came  into  his  mind. 

Cui  corpus  porrigitur,  Whose  body  is  extended. 

Obs.  2.  The  dative  in  this  construction  is  said  to  be  used  for,  or  in¬ 
stead  of  the  genitive,  as  in  Rule  VI.  There  are  but  few  instances, 
however,  in  which  the  genitive,  under  that  rule  could  with  propriety 
be  changed  for  the  dative.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  dative  is 
used,  the  genitive  would  fail  to  express  so  precisely  the  idea  intended, 
in  this  construction,  the  noun  governing  the  dative  is  connected  with 
a  verb  in  such  a  way  as  clearly  to  show,  that  the  dative  is  rather  the 
object  of  that  which  is  expressed  by  the  verb  and  noun  together,  than 
under  the  government  of  the  noun  alone.  Thus  in  the  first  example, 
ei,  denotes  the  person  to  whom  that  which  is  expressed  by  venit  in 
mentem ,  occurred.  So,  corpus  porrigitur ,  states  what  was  done  to 
the  person  represented  by  cui.  The  principle  of  this  construction 
will  be  more  manifest  from  what  is  stated,  §  123.  Exp. 


$111.  THE  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES. 

Rule  XVI.  Adjectives  signifying  profit  or  dis- 
profit,  likeness  or  unlikeness  govern  the  dative ; 
as, 


XJtilis  bello, 
Similis  vatri . 


Useful  for  war. 
Like  his  father. 


216 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


§  HI 


■EXPLANATION. — The  dative  under  this  rule,  like  the  genitive  under  Kuks 
IX.  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  the  adjective  to  a  particular  object  or  end, 
to  which  the  quality  expressed  try  it  is  directed.  Thus  in  the  first  example 
utilii  means  t(  useful”  in  a  general  sense,  hello  limits  the  usefulness  intended 
to  a  particular  object,  “war.”  The  dative  thus  used  is  rendered  by  its  ordi¬ 
nary  signs  to  or  for,  but  sometimes  by  other  prepositions  or  without  a  prep  >ai- 
tion,  as  in  the  last  example. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  To  this  rule  belong  adjectives  signifying, 

IsC  Profit,  or  disprofit ;  as,  benignus,  bonus ,  commodus,  felix 
damnosus ,  dirus,  exitiosus,  funestus,  &.c. 

2d.  Pleasure,  or  pain ;  as,  Acceptus,  dulcis,  grdtus ,  jucundut, 
Icctus,  suavis  ; — Acerbus,  amdrus,  ingratus,  molestus ,  &c. 

3d.  Friendship,  or  hatred  ;  as,  JEquus,  amicus,  blandus,  cams, 
deditus,  fidus  ; — adversus.  asper ,  crudelis ,  infestus,  &c. 

4th.  Perspicuity,  or  obscurity  ;  as,  apertus,  certus ,  compertus,  con - 
spicuus,  notus  ; — ambiguus ,  dubius,  ignotus,  obscurus ,  &,c. 

5th.  Propinquity  ;  as,  finitimus,  propior,  proximus,  propinquus , 
socius,  vicinus ,  affvnis,  &c. 

6th.  Fitness,  or  unfitness  ;  as,  Jtptus,  appositus,  habilis,  idoneux , 
opporiunus  ; — ineptus,  inhabilis,  importunus,  &c. 

7th.  Ease,  or  difficulty;  as ,  facilis,  levis,  obvius,  pervius ; — dif - 
ficilis,  arduus ,  gravis.  Also  those  denoting  propensity  or 
readiness  ;  as,  promts,  proclivis,  propensus ,  8cc. 

8th.  Equality,  or  inequality;  likeness,  or  unlikeness  ;  as,  JEqudlis, 
cequcevus,  par ,  comp  ar  ; — in  (Equal  is,  impar,  dispar ,  discors  ; — 
similis,  cemvlus  ■ — dissimilis,  alienus,  &c. 

9th.  Several  adjectives  compounded  with  CON ;  as,  cogndtus, 
congruus,  consbnus,  conveniens,  continens,  & c. 

10£A  Verbal  adjectives  in  -BILIS  ;  as,  Amabilis,  terribilis,  optu’ 
bills,  and  the  like. 

Obs.  2.  Exc.  The  following  adjectives  have  sometimes  the  dative 
after  them,  and  sometimes  the  genitive,  viz:  Affinis  similis,  commu - 
nis,  par,  propHus ;  finitimus,  fidus,  conterminus,  superstes,  conscius, 
<equali$ ,  contrarius,  and  adversus;  as,  similis  tibi,  or  tui. 

Obs.  3.  Adjectives  signifying  motion  or  tendency  to  a  thing,  take 
after  them  the  accusative  with  ad,  rather  than  the  dative;  as,  procli¬ 
vus,  pronus,  propensus,  velox,  celer,  tardus,  piger,  &c.  thus;  piger  ad 
poenas.  Ov. 

Obs.  4.  Adjectives  signifying  usefulness  ov  fitness,  and  the  contrary, 
often  take  the  accusative  with  ad;  as,  utilis  ad  nullam  rem,  good  for 
nothing. 

Obs.  5.  Propior  and  proximus  take  after  them  the  dative,  or  the 
accusative  governed  by  ad  understood;  as,  Propius  vero;  proximus 
Pompeium,  (sc.  ad.) 

Conscius  and  some  other  adjectives,  govern  the  dative  according  to 
this  rule,  and  at  the  same  time  a  genitive  by  rule  IX;  as,  Mens  sibi 
tonscia  recti,  11  a  mind  conscious  to  itself  of  rectitude.’5  Virg. 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


217 


§  112 

Obs.  6.  Some  adjectives  that  govern  the  dative,  sometimes,  instead 
of  the  dative,  have  an  ablative  with  a  preposition  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood;  as,  discors  secum ;  alienwn  nostra  amieitia. 

Obs.  7.  Idem  is  sometimes  followed  by  the  dative,  chiefly  in  the 
poets;  as,  Jupiter  idem  omnibus.  Invitum  qui  servat,  idem  facit  occi • 
denti.  In  prose  idem  is  followed  commonly  by  qui,  ac}  atque ,  ut}  or 
quam. 


§  112.  THE  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS. 

Rule  XVII.  All  verbs  govern  the  dative  of  the 
object  or  end,  to  which  the  action,  or  state  ex¬ 
pressed  by  them,  is  directed ;  as, 

Finis  venit  imperio,  An  end  has  come  to  the  empire. 

Animus  redit  hostibus ,  Courage  returns  to  the  enemy.  [self. 

Tibi  seris,  iibi  metis,  You  sow  for  yourself,  you  reap  for  your- 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  may  be  considered  as  general,  applying  to  all 
cases  in  which  a  verb  is  followed  by  a  dative.  When  the  verb  is  active,  it  gov¬ 
erns  its  remote  object  in  the  dative,  not  as  that  upon  which  the  action  is  exerted, 
but  as  that  to  Avhich  it  is  directed,  while  at  the  same  time,  it  governs  also  its  im¬ 
mediate  object  in  the  accusative,  (§123.)  If  neuter,  it  will  be  followed  by  a  dative 
only. 

This  rule  being  applicable  to  all  cases  in  which  a  dative  follows  a  verb,  is 
too  general  to  be  useful,  as  it  could  be  applied  correctly  without  much  discri¬ 
mination.  It  will  therefore  be  of  more  advantage,  when  it  can  be  done,  to 
apply  the  special  rules  comprehended  under  it  as  follows: 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

Rule  I.  Sum  and  its  compounds  govern  the  da¬ 
tive,  (except  possum;)  as, 

Prcefuit  exercitui,  He  commanded  the  army. 

Ad.fuit  precibus,  He  was  present  at  prayers. 

Rule  II.  The  verb  Est ,  signifying  to  be ,  or  to 
belong  to,  governs  the  dative  of  the  possessor;  as, 

Est  mihi  liber ,  A  book  is  to  me,  i.  e.  I  have  a  book. 

Sunt  mihi  libri,  Books  are  to  me,  i.  e.  I  have  books.  [&c. 

Scio  libros  esse  mihi ,  I  know  that  books  are  to  me,  i.  e.  that  I  have, 

But,  with  the  gerund  for  its  subject  (R.  LXI), 
Est  governs  the  dative  of  the  doer ;  as, 

Legendum  est  mihi ,  Reading  is  to  me,  i.  e.  I  must  read. 

EXPLANATION— In  this  construction,  the  dative  expresses  the  person  or 
thing,  to  or  for  which  the  subject  spoken  of,  is,  or  exists.  The  verb  will  always 
be  in  the  third  person  singular,  or  plural,  in  any  tense,  or  in  the  infinitive.— 
This  very  common  Latin  construction  will  he  rendered  correctly  into  English, 

19 


218 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


§112 


Dy  the  active  verb,  “have,1’  instead  o[“is,”&,c.  of  which  the  Latm  dative  be¬ 
comes  the  subject  or  nominative,  and  the  Latin  nominative  the  object,  as  is 
shewn  in  the  above  examples. 

Obs.  1.  The  dative  is  used  in  a  similar  manner  after  forern,  supptto, 
desum  deficio •  §c.  as,  pauper  non  est  cui  rerum  suppetit  usus.  He  is 
not  poor  to  whom  the  use  of  property  is  supplied,  i.  e.  who  has  the  use 
of  property.  Hor.  So,  Si  mihi  cauda  forct. — Defuit  ars  vobis — Lac 
mihi  non  defit,  Nisi  vinum  nobis  defecisset ,  &c. 

Rule  III.  Verbs  compounded  of  satis ,  bene ,  and 
male  govern  the  dative ;  as, 

Legibus  satisfecit,  He  satisfied  the  laws, 

BenefacZre  reipublicce ,  To  benefit  the  state. 

Obs.  2.  These  compounds  are  often  written  separately,  and  the 
iative  is  governed  by  the  combined  force  of  the  two  words. 

Rule  IV.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  these 
ten  prepositions  ad,  ante ,  con, — in,  inter,  ob, — 
post,  pree,  sub,  and  super  govern  the  dative ;  as, 

Annue  cceptis,  Favor  our  undertakings. 

Verbs  governing  the  dative  under  this  rule  are  such  as  the 
following;  viz. 

1.  Accedo,  accresco,  accumbo,  acquiesco,  adno ,  adnato,  adequito, 
adheereo ,  ad.sto,  adstipulor,  advolvor ,  affulgeo,  allabor,  allabdro, 
annuo ,  appareo,  applaudo,  appropinquo ,  arrideo,  asplro,  assentior , 
assideo,  assisto.  assuesco,  assurgo. 

2.  Antecello ,  anieeo,  antesto,  anteverto. 

3.  Colludo,  concino,  consono ,  convivo. 

4.  Incumbo,  indormio,  indubito ,  inhio,  ingemisco,  inheereo,  insideo, 
insideor ,  insio,  insisto,  insudo ,  insult o ,  invigilo,  illacrymo,  illudo , 
immineo ,  immorior ,  immbror ,  impendeo. 

5.  Intervenio ,  intermico ,  intercedo ,  intercido,  inter jaceo. 

6.  Obrepo,  oblucto,  obtrecto,  obstrepo,  obmurmuro,  occumbo,  oc* 
curro,  occurso,  obsto,  obsisto,  obvenio. 

7.  Postfcro,  posthabeo,  postpono,  postpiito,  poslscribo ;  with  an 
accusative. 

8.  Prcecedo,  prcecurro,  prceeo ,  preesideo ,  prceluceo ,  preeniteo,  prees- 
to,  preevaleo,  preeverto. 

9.  Succedo,  succumbo,  sufficio,  suffragor ,  subcresco,  suboleo,  sub - 
iaceo,  subrepo. 

10.  Supervenio ,  super  curro ,  supersto.  But  most  verbs  compounded 
with  super  govern  the  accusative. 

Obs.  3.  Some  verbs  compounded  with  ab,  de,  ex,  circum,  and  con¬ 
tra  ;  also  compounds  of  di  and  dis  meaning  generally  u  to  differ,” 
are  sometimes  followed  by  the  dative.  These,  however,  chiefly  fall 
under  Rule  XXXI.  §  125. 

Obs.  4.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions,  instead  of  the 
dative,  take  the  case  of  the  preposition  which  is  sometimes  repeated. 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


219 


§  112 


Someintrans.  verbs  so  compounded,  either  take  the  dative,  or,  acquir. 
ing  a  trans.  signification  by  the  force  of  the  preposition,  govern  the 
accusative  by  Rule  XX.  as,  Helvetii  reliquos  Gallos  virtute  praecedunt, 
The  Helvetii  surpass  the  other  Gauls  in  bravery. 

Rule  V.  Verbs  govern  the  dative  which  signi¬ 
fy  to  profit  or  hurt; — to  favor  or  assist,  and  the 
contrary ; — to  command  and  obey,  to  serve  and 
resist; — to  threaten  and  to  be  angry;  to  trust. 

EXPLANATION. — Verbs  governing  the  dative,  under  this  and  the  preceding  rule, 
are  always  intransitives,  or  transitives  used  intransitively,  and  consequently  it  is  appli¬ 
cable  to  the  active  voice  only.  The  dative  after  passive  verbs,  does  not  come  under 
these  rules,  but  belongs  to  Q  126.  Rule  XXXIII. 

Obs.  5.  The  verbs  under  this  rule  are  such  as  the  fol¬ 
lowing  : 

1st.  To  profit  or  hurt;  as, 

Proficio,  prosum ,  placeo ,  commodo,  prospicio,  caveo,  metuc ,  timeo,  con - 
*ido,  for  prospicio.  Likewise,  Noceo,  officio ,  incommodo,  displiceo,&c. 

2d.  To  favor  or  assist,  and  the  contrary;  as, 

Faveo,  gratulor,  gratificor,  grator,  ignosco,  indulgeo,  parco,  adU - 
lor,  plaudo,  blandior,  lenocinor,  palpor,  assentor,  subyarasitor .  Like¬ 
wise,  Auxilior,  adminiculor,  subvenio,  succurro,  pairocinor ,  inedeor , 
medicor ,  opitulor.  Likewise,  Derogo,  detrdho,  invideo,  cemulor. 

3d.  To  command  and  obey,  to  serve  and  resist;  as, 

ImpZro,  preEcipio,  mando ;  modSror,  for  modum  adhibeo.  Likewise. 
Pareo,  ausculto,  obedio,  obst  quor ,  obttmpero,  morem  gcro,  morigSror , 
obsecundo.  Likewise,  Famulor,  servio,  inservio,  ministro,  ancillor. 
Likewise,  Repugno,obsto,  reluctor,  realtor,  resisto,  refragor,  adversor. 

4th.  To  threaten  and  to  be  angry  ;  as, 

Minor,  comminor ,  irascor,  succenseo. 

5th.  To  trust;  as,  Fido ,  confido,  credo,  diffldo. 

To  these  add,  Nubo,  excello,  hcereo,  supplico,  ccdo ,  despero,  opZror , 
prcestolor ,  prcevaricor  ;  recipio,  to  promise  ;  renuncio  ;  respondeo,  to 
answer,  or  satisfy  •,  temptro,  studeo  ;  vaco ,  to  apply;  convicior. 

Exc.  Jubco,  juvo,  Icedo,  and  offendo ,  govern  the  accusatite. 

Obs.  6.  Many  of  these  verbs,  however,  are  variously  construed,  the 
same  verb  sometimes  governing  the  dative  according  to  this  rule  ; 
sometimes  taken  in  an  active  sense  they  govern  the  accusative  by 
rule  XX.  They  are  followed  by  an  accusative  with  a  preposition, 
and  sometimes  by  an  ablative  with  a  preposition.  Thus,  ImpendZre 
alicui,  or  aliquem,  or  in  aliquem,  to  hang  over  ;  congrutre  alicui 
cum  aliqua  re,  inter  se,  to  agree. 

Obs.  7.  Many  verbs  when  they  vary  their  construction,  vary  their 
meaning  also;  as,  Timeo  tibi,  de  te,  pro  te,  signifies,  “  I  fear  for  you,” 
i  e.  for  your  safety  ;  but  timeo  te,  means,  “  I  fear  you.”  “  I  dread 


220 


SYNTAX. — THE  DATIVE. 


§  113 

you."  Constilo  tibi ,  is  “  I  consult  for  you,"  i.  e.  “  for  your  safety,” 
consitlo  te,  means  “  I  consult  you,"  “I  ask  your  advice;"  and  so 
of  others. 

Obs.  8.  Verbs  signifying  motion  or  tendency  to  a  thing  instead  of 
the  dative  have  usually  the  preposition  ad  or  in  with  the  accusative  ; 
as,  Clamor  it  ad  coelum  ;  seldom  and  chiefly  with  the  poets,  coelo. 


$  113.  DATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  IMPERSONALS. 

Rule  XVIII.  An  impersonal  verb  governs  th3 
dative;  as, 

ExpSdit  reipublicce,  It  is  profitable  for  the  state. 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  to  the  dative  governed  by  the  passive  of 
all  those  verbs  which  in  the  active  voice  govern  the  dative  only,  according  to 
§  112,  Rules  III.  IV.  and  V. — the  passive  of  all  intransitives,  being  used  onlyim 
personally,  §  85.  3.  Thus,  Favetur  mihi,  “l  am  favored,"  not  egofaveor.  When 
the  passives  of  such  verbs  are  used  personally ,  then  the  verb  is  to  be  consider¬ 
ed  as  used  in  an  active  sense,  §  112.  Obs.  6. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  These  verbs  Potest ,  coepit ,  incipit,  desinit ,  debet  and  solet, 
before  the  infinitive  of  impersonals,  become  impersonal  also  ;  as, 
Non  potest  credi  tibi,  “You  cannot  be  believed." 

Obs.  2.  Some  verbs  are  used  both  personally  and  impersonally  ;  as, 
doleo,  “  I  grieve  ;"  dolet  mihi,  11  It  grieves  me,"  i.  e.  “I  grieve." 
So  also  verbs  commonly  used  impersonally  sometimes  have  a  subject 
in  the  nominative,  and  are  of  course  used  personally.  This  is  the 
case  especially  with  such  nominatives  as  these, — Id,  hoc,  illud,  quid , 
quod,  nihil,  &c.  as,  Nonne  hcec  te  pudent  ?  “  Are  you  not  ashamed  of 
these  things?" 

Obs.  3.  An  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence  is  commonly  join- 
ed  to  an  impersonal  verb,  which  in  fact  may  be  regarded  as  its  sub¬ 
ject  ;  as,  Delectat  me  studere,  11  It  delights  me  to  study,”  i.  e.  “  study 
delights  me."  §  .101.  Obs.  3. — §  144.  Obs.  1. 

Obs.  4.  The  dative  after  impersonals  is  sometimes  understood;  as" 
Faciat  quod  libet,  (sc.  sibi.) 

Exc.  I.  Refert  and  Interest  govern  the  geni* 
tive;  as. 

Refert  patris,  It  concerns  my  father. 

Interest  omnium,  It  is  the  interest  of  all. 

But  rnea ,  tua,  sua ,  nostra ,  vestra,  are  put  in  the  accUSO* 
tive  plural  neuter  ;  as, 

Non  mea  refert,  It  does  not  concern  me. 

Obs.  5.  These  pronouns  must  be  considered  as  agreeing  with  such 
a  substantive  as  ncgotia-,  and  that  mea,  for  example,  is  equal  to  negotia 
mei .  This  then  seems  clearly  to  shew  that  such  constructions  as, 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


221 


§  ns 


refert  patris  are  elliptical,  and  that  the  word  to  he  supplied  is  in  the  ac¬ 
cusative  plural  neuter  ;  thus,  refert  patris,  (sc.  ad  negotia,)  lit.  it 
refers  to  the  affairs  of  my  father  ;  Interest  omniunn,  i.  e.  est  inter  om¬ 
nium  negotia .  “  it  is  among  the  affairs  of  all refert  mea ,  i.  e.  ad 
mea  negotia ,  equivalent  to  ad  negotia  mei. 

Obs.  6:  Instead  of  the  genitive,  these  verbs  sometimes  take  the  ac¬ 
cusative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  refert  ad  me,  for  refert  mea ,  i.  e.  mei. 
Sometimes  they  are  used  absolutely  without  a  case  expressed. 


Exc.  II.  These  five  Miser et,  poenitet,  pudet , 
tcedet ,  and  piget,  govern  the  accusative  of  the  im¬ 
mediate,  with  the  genitive  of  the  remote  ob¬ 
ject  ;  as, 


Mist  ret  metui, 
Poenitet  me  peccati, 
Tcedet  me  vitce, 
Pudet  me  culpce, 


I  pity  you. 

I  repent  of  my  sin. 

I  am  weary  of  life. 

I  am  ashamed  of  my  fault. 


EXPLANATION. — These  examples  may  be  rendered  literally  thus;  It  grieves 
me  on  account  of  you,  i.  e.  ergo,  or  causa  tui. — It  repents  me  of  my  sin. — It  wearies 
me  of  life. — It  shames  me  of  my  fault.  For  the  method  of  rendering  impersonal 
verbs  in  a  personal  form,  as  in  the  above  examples,  see  §  85.  2.  and  6. 


Obs.  7.  The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence  may  supply  the 
the  place  of  the  genitive;  as,  poenitetme  pccc&sse,  or  quod  peccavSrim. 
After  Mistret,  it  is  sometimes  supplied  by  the  accusative  governed  by 
quod  attinct  ad,  understood  ;  as,  Menedemi  vicem  misiret  me.  i.  e.  quod 
atiinet  ad  vicem.  Ter.  The  accusative  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as, 
Scelerum  si  bene  poenitet  (scil.  nos.)  Hor. 

Obs.  8.  The  preterites  of  these  verbs  in  the  passive  form,  govern 
the  same  cases  as  the  active  ;  as,  Miscritum  est  me  tuarum  fortund - 
rum.  Ter.  Miser escit ,  and  miseretur  are  sometimes  used  imper- 
sonally  ;  as,  Miser  escit  me  tui.  Ter.  Miser  eatur  te  fratrum;  Ncque 
me  tui,  neque  tuorum  liberbrum  misereri  potest.  Cic. 


Exc.  III.  Decet,  delect  at,  javat,  and  oportet , 
govern  the  accusative  of  a  person  with  the  infini¬ 
tive;  as, 

Deledat  me  studere,  It  delights  me  to  study. 

Non  decet  te  rixari,  It  does  not  become  you  to  scold. 


Obs.  9.  These  verbs  are  sometimes  used  personally  ;  as,  Parvum 
parva  decent.  Hor.  Decet  sometimes  governs  the  dative;  as,  Ita  no¬ 
bis  decet.  Ter. 

Obs.  10.  Oportet,  instead  of  the  infinitive,  elegantly  takes  the  sub¬ 
junctive  with  ut,  “that,5  understood;  as,  Sibi  quisque  consulat  oportet. 
Cic.  When  followed  by  the  perfect  participle,  esse,  or  fuisse  is  under¬ 
stood,  which  being  supplied,  makes  the  perfect  infinitive. 

Obs.  11.  Fallit,  fugit,  prcetZrit,  laid t  when  used  impersonally,  are 
construed  with  the  accusative  and  infinitive;  as,  fugit  me  ad  te  scri- 
here,  Cic 


19* 


222 


SYNTAX. - THE  DATIVE. 


§114 


*  114.  VERBS  GOVERNING  TWO  DATIVES. 


.Rule  XIX.  The  verbs  sum,  do,  habeo,  and  some 
others,  with  the  dative  of  the  object,  govern  also 
the  dative  of  the  end,  or  design;  as, 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Est  mihi  voluptati , 
Hoc  misit  mihi  muncri, 


It  is  to  me  for  a  pleasure,  i.  e. 

It  is,  or  brings,  a  pleasure  to  me. 

This  he  sent  as  a  present  to  me. 


Duciiur  honori  tibi , 


$  It  is  reckoned  to  you  for  an  honor,  i. 
(  It  is  reckoned  an  honor  to  you. 


e 


EXPLANATION. — In  these  examples  it  is  manifest  that  the  words  voluptati , 
honori,  and  muneri ,  each  express  the  end  or  design  for  which  the  thing  spoken 
of,  or  referred  to,  is,  is  reckoned,  is  sent  to  the  object  expressed  by  the  other  da¬ 
tives,  mihi  and  tibi.  See  also  Obs.  3. 

The  verb  sum,  with  the  dative  of  the  end,  may  be  variously  rendered  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  sense  ;  as,  by  the  words,  brings,  affords,  serves,  Sec.  For,  the  sign 
of  the  dative,  is  often  omitted,  especially  after  sum. 


OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Verbs  governing  two  datives  under  this  rule,  are  chiefly, 
sum,  fore,  habeo,  do,  verio,  relinquo,  tribuo ,  duco,  and  a  few  others. 

Obs.  2.  Instead  of  the  dative  of  the  end,  the  nominative  after  est, 
&c.  or  the  accusative,  in  apposition  with  the  object  of  the  preceding 
verb,  expresses  the  same  thing;  as,  Amor  Est  exilium  pectin,  for 
exitio;  Se  A  chilli  comitem  esse  datum  dicit,  for  comiti.  In  the  first  ex¬ 
ample,  cxitium  is  the  nominative  after  est ,  by  Rule  V.  In  the  second, 
comitem  is  in  apposition  with  se,  by  Rule  I. 

Obs.  3.  Intransitives,  such  as  sum,  fore,  fio,  eo,  curro,  proficiscor , 
venio,  cedo,  suppedito,  are  followed  by  two  datives,  as  in  the  first  ex¬ 
ample;  transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice,  besides  the  two  datives, 
have  an  accusative  expressed  or  understood  by  Rule  XX.  as  in  the 
second  example;  and  in  the  passive  voice  two  datives,  as  in  the  third 
example,  the  one  by  rule  XXIX.  and  the  other  by  this  rule. 

Obs.  4.  The  dative  of  the  object  (commonly  a  person,)  is  often  to 
be  supplied;  as,  Est  exemplo,  indicio,  preesidio,  usui ,  &c.  scil.  mihi, 
alicui,  hominibus,  or  some  such  word.  So,  pontire,  oppontre  pignd - 
ri,  sc.  alicui,  “  to  pledge;”  can&re  receptui,  sc.  suis  militibus,  “  to 
sound  a  retreat;”  habere  cures,  questui.  odio,  voluptati, studio,  Sec.  sc.  sibi. 

Obs.  5.  To  this  rule  is  sometimes  referred  the  forms  of  naming, 
so  common  in  Latin;  such  as,  Est  mihi  nomen  Alexandrov  Cui  cog¬ 
nomen  Tulo  addltur.  The  construction.  §  97.  Exc.  2,  is  much  better. 

Obs.  6.  From  constructions  under  this  rule,  should  be  distinguished 
those  in  which  the  second  dative  may  be  governed  by  another  noun 
in  the  dative,  according  to  §  110. 

N.  B.  For  the  Dative  with  the  Accusative,  see  §  123. 

For  the  Dative  after  the  Passive  voice,  see  §  126. 

For  the  Dative  after.  Particles,  see  §  135.  Obs.  3.  and 
R.  XL VII.— After  Hei  and  7®,  $  1 17.  Obs.  3. 


^  115,  16  SYNTAX. - THE  ACCUSATIVE.  223 

«  115.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

1.  The  Accusative,  in  Latin,  is  used  to  express  the  immediate  object 
of  a  transitive  (or  active)  verb, — or,  in  other  words,  that  on  which  its  ac 
tion  is  exerted,  and  which  is  affected  by  it. 

2.  It  is  used  to  express  the  object  to  which  something  tends  or  relates* 
in  which  sense  it  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  expressed  or  understood. 
When  used  to  express  the  remote  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  or  certain 
relations  of  measure,  distance,  time,  and  place,  the  preposition  is  usually 
omitted. 


§  116.  ACCUSATIVE  GOVERNED  BV  VERBS. 

Rule  XX„  A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice 
governs  the  accusative;  as, 

Ama  Deum,  Love  God. 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

Rule  I.  A  transitive  deponent  verb  governs  the 
accusative ;  as, 

Reverere  parentes ,  Reverence  your  parents. 

Rule  II.  An  intransitive  verb  may  govern  a  noun 
of  kindred  signification  in  the  accusative;  as, 

Pugnare  pugnam,  To  fight  a  battle. 

EXPLANATION. — These  rules  apply  to  all  verbs  which  have  an  accusative  as  their 
immediate  object ;  and  that  accusative  may  be  any  thing  used  substantively,  whether 
it  be  a  noun ,  a.  pronoun,  an  infinitive  mood ,  or  clause  of  a  sentence.  In  transitives  under 
Rule  II.  are  often  followed  by  the  ablative,  with  a  preposition  expressed  or  understood  , 
as,  Ire  (in)  itinere.  Gaudere  (cum)  gaudio,  Ac  . 

Obs.  1.  Verbs  signifying  to  name,  choose,  reckon,  constitute,  and 
the  like,  besides  the  accusative  of  the  object,  take  also  the  accusative 
of  the  name ,  office,  character,  See.,  ascribed  to  it;  as,  XJrbem  Romam 
vocavit:  He  called  the  city  Rome.  All  such  verbs  in  the  passive, 
have  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  §  103,  Exp. 

Obs.  2.  Verbs  commonly  intransitive,  are  sometimes  used  in  a  tran¬ 
sitive  sense,  and  are  therefore  followed  by  an  accusative  under  this  i  ule; 
thus, 

Transitive.  Intransitive. 

Abhoirerefamam, to  dread  infamy.  Abhorrere  a  litibus,  to  be  averse  &c 
Abol  ere  monument  a,  to  abolish  &c.  Memoria  abolevit,  memory  failed. 
Declinare  ictum,  to  avoid  a  blow.  Declinare  loco,  to  remove  from,  &c. 
Laborare  arma,  to  forge  arms.  Laborare  morbo,  to  be  ill. 

Morari  iter  to  stop.  Morari  in  urbe,  to  stay  in  the  city 


224 


SYNTAX. - THE  ACCUSATIVE. 


§  11(5 


Obs.  3.  The  Accusative  after  many  intransitive  verbs  depends  on  a  pre. 
position  understood  ;  as  Morientem  nomine  clamat ;  Meas  queror  fortu. 
nas ;  Nwn  id  lacrymat  virgo  ;  Quicquid  delirant  reges ,  plectuntur  Achi- 
vi ;  Stygias  juravimus  undas,  &c.  In  which  and  similar  senten¬ 
ces  the  prepositions,  ob,  propter ,  circa ,  per ,  ad,  in,  &c.  may  be  sup 
plied. 

This  construction  of  intransitive  verbs  is  most  common  with  the  neu¬ 
ter  accusatives  id,  quid,  aliquid,  quicquid ,  nihil,  idem,  illud,  tantum , 
quantum,  hoc,  multa,  alia ,  pauca,  &c. 

Obs.  4.  The  accusative  after  many  verbs  depends  on  a 
preposition  with  which  they  are  compounded.  This  is  the 
the  case, 

1st.  With  intransitive  verbs;  as,  Gentes  qua  mare  illud  adjacent,  “the 
nations  which  border  upon  the  sea  So,  ineunt  preelium,  adire 
provinciam,  transcurrZre  mare,  alloquor  te,  &c.  Thus  compound¬ 
ed,  many  verbs  seem  to  become  transitive  in  sense,  and  so  govern 
the  accusative  by  this  rule.  In  general,  however,  they  fall  under 
Rule  LI  I. 

2d.  With  transitive  verbs,  in  which  case  two  accusatives  follow,  one 
governed  by  the  verb,  and  another  by  the  preposition  ;  as,  Omnem 
equitatum  pontem  transducit,  “  He  leads  all  the  cavalry  over  the 
bridge.”  Hellespontum  copias  trajecit.  Here  also  the  second 
accusative  falls  under  Rule  LII. 

Note. — After  most  verbs,  however  compounded  with  prepositions  governing 
the  accusative,  the  preposition  is  repeated  before  it ;  as,  Ccesar  so  ad  nemcnem 
adjunxit. 

Obs.  5.  The  accusative  after  a  transitive  verb  is  sometimes  under¬ 
stood;  as,  Turn  prora  avertit,  sc.  se  ;  flumina  precipitant,  scil.  se  ;  faci- 
am  xitula,  sc.  sacra.  Sometimes  the  verb  is  omitted. 

Obs.  6.  Rule.  The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence 
is  often  used  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  instead  of 
the  accusative ;  as, 

Da  mihi  fallere,  Give  me  to  deceive. 

Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I  desire  to  be  gentle. 

,  .  ?  They  determined  that  they  would 

Statuerunt  ut  naves  conscenderent,  >  embark  J 

Note  2. — In  such  constructions,  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  sometimes  by  a 
Greek  idiom  put  in  the  accusative,  as  the  object  of  the  verb;  as,  Nosti  Marcel - 
lum,  quam  tardus  sit ;  instead  of  Nosti  quam  tardus  Marrcellus  sit ;  So,  Ilium  ut 
vivat  optant,  instead  of  ut  illc  vivat  optant  ;  or  ilium  vivere  optant.  Gr.  Gram. 
§  150.  Ohs.  4. 

Obs.  7.  A  few  cases  occur  in  which  the  accusative  is  put  after  a 
noun  derived  from  a  verb,  or  the  verbal  adjectives  in  -bundus  ;  as,  Quid 
tibi  hue  receptio  ad,  te  est  meum  virum  ?  Wherefore  do  you  receive  my 
husband  hither  to  you  ?  Plaut.  Quid  tibi  hanc  aditio  est.  Id.  Vitabun- 
dus  castra.  Liv. 

Obs.  8.  Many  verbs  considered  transitive  in  Latin,  are  intransitive  in 
English,  and  must  have  a  preposition  supplied  in  translating;  as,  Ut  ca. 
verct  me  “  that  he  should  beware  of  me.”  On  the  other  hand,  ma¬ 
ny  intransitive  verbs  in  Latin,  i.e.,  verbs  which  do  not  take  an  accusa. 


§  117-18 


SYNTAX. - THE  VOCATIVE 


225 


tive  after  them  are  rendered  into  English  by  transitive  verbs;  as,  For 
tunafavet fuitibus ,  “fortune  favors  the  brave. 

N.  B.  For  the  Accusative  governed  by  Recordor,  &c.  see 
§  108.  R.  XIV. — with  another  accusative,  §  124.  R.  XXX. — 
governed  by  prepositions,  §  136.  R.  XL VIII.  L.  LI.  LII. — 
denoting  time,  §  131.  R.  XLI. — place,  §  130,  R.  XXXVII.— 
measure  or  distance,  §  132.  R.  XLII. 


*  117.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  VOCATIVE. 

The  Vocative  is  used  to  designate  the  person  or  thing  addressed, 
but  forms  no  part  of  the  proposition  with  which  it  stands  ;  and  it  is 
used  either  with,  or  without  an  interjection. 

Rule  XXI.  The  interjections  0,  heu  and  proh, 
are  construed  with  the  vocative ;  as, 

0  formose  puer  !  0  fair  boy  ! 

Sometimes  with  the  accusative  ;  as,  Heu  me  miserum,  il  Ah  wretch 
that  I  am  !”  and  sometimes  with  the  nominative  ;  as,  0  vir  fortis  atque 
amicus. 

Obs.  1.  To  these  may  be  added  other  interjections  of  calling  or  ad¬ 
dressing  ;  as,  ah,  au,  ehem,  eheu,  eho,  eja ,  hem,  heus,  hui,  io,  ohe,  and 
vah,  which  are  often  followed  by  the  vocative  :  as,  Heus  Syre ;  Ohe 
libelle. 

Obs.  2.  The  vocative  is  sometimes  omitted  while  a  genitive  depend¬ 
ing  upon  it  remains  ;  as,  O  miser  ce  gentis,  sc.  homines.  Lucan. 

Obs.  3.  The  interjection  Hei  and  Vce,  govern  the  dative;  as,  Hex 
mihi-,  “  Ah  me  !”  Vce  vobis,  “  Woe  to  you !” 


$  118.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ABLATIVE. 

The  ablative  is  used  in  Latin  generally  to  express  that  from  which 
something  is  separated  or  taken  ;  or,  as  that  by,  or  with  which  some, 
thing  is  done,  or  exists.  It  is  governed  by  nouns,  adjectives ,  verbs 
and  prepositions,  and  also  is  used  to  express  various  relations  of  mea¬ 
sure,  distance,  time,  and  place ,  Sec. 

THE  ABLATIVE  AFTER  NOUNS 

Rule  XXII.  Opus  and  Usus  signifying  need ,  re¬ 
quire  the  ablative;  as, 

Est  opus  pecunia,  There  is  need  of  money. 

Nunc  usus  viribus  Now  there  is  need  of  strength. 


226 


SYNTAX. - THE  ABLATIVE. 


§ 


EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  after  these  nouns  is  probably  governed  by  a 
preposition  such  as  pro  understood.  In  this  sense  they  are  used  only  with  the 
verb  sum,  of  which  opus  is  sometimes  the  subject,  and  sometimes  the  predicate: 
Vsus,  the  subject  only. 


OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Opus  in  the  predicate,  is  commonly  used  as  an  indeclinable 
adjective,  in  which  case  it  rarely  has  the  ablative  ;  as,  Dux  nobis 
opus  est,  11  AYe  need  a  general.”  Cic.  So,  Dices  nummos  mihi  opus  esse. 
Cic.  Nobis  exempla  opus  sunt.  Cic.  In  these  examples  opus,  as  an 
indeclinable  adjective,  agrees  with  u  dux,”  “  nummos”  “  exempla ,” 
by  R.ule  II.  This  construction  is  most  common  with  neuter  adjec¬ 
tives  and  pronouns,  and  is  always  used  with  those  denoting  quantity  ; 
as,  quod  non  opus  est,  asse  carum  est.  Cato  apud  Sen. 

Obs.  2.  Opus  and  usus  are  often  joined  with  the  perfect  participle ; 
as,  Opus  maturato,  “Need  of  haste  Opus  consulto,  u  Need  of  de¬ 
liberation  Usus  facto ,  “  Need  of  action.”  The  participle  has  some¬ 
times  a  substantive  joined  with  it  after  opus  ;  as,  Mihi  opus  fuit 
Hirtio  convento,  “  It  behoved  me  to  meet  with  Hirtius.  Cic 
Sometimes  the  supine  is  joined  with  it ;  as,  Ita  dictu  opus  est.  Ter 

Obs.  3.  Opus  is  often  followed  by  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  with  ut ;  as,  Siquid  forte,  quod  opus  sit  sciri.  Cic.  Nunc  tibi 
opus  est,  cegram  ut  te  adsimiles.  Plaut.  Sometimes  it  is  absolutely 
without  a  case,  or  with  a  case  understood  ;  as,  Sic  opus  est ;  Si  opus 
est. 

Exc.  Opus  and  usus,  are  sometimes  followed  by  the  genitive  by 
Rule  II.;  as,  Argenti  opus  fuit,  11  there  was  need  of  money;” 
Sometimes  by  an  accusative,  in  which  case  an  infinitive  is  probably 
understood  ;  as  Puero  opus  est  cibum  ;  Scil.  habere.  Plaut. 


§  119.  ABLATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  ADJECTIVES. 


[For  the  Ablative  governed  by  adjectives  of  plenty  or  want,  see 

§  107.  Rule  XI.] 


Rule  XXIII.  These  adjectives  dignus,  indignus , 
contentus ,  praditus ,  captus,  and  fretus ,  also  the  par¬ 
ticiples  notus ,  satus ,  ortus ,  editus ,  and  the  like, 
denoting  origin,  govern  the  ablative ;  as, 


Dignus  honore, 
Contentus  parvo, 
Prceditus  virtute , 
Captus  oculis, 
Fretus  viribus, 
Ortus  regibus, 


Worthy  of  honor. 
Content  with  little. 
Endued  with  virtue. 
Blind 

Trusting  to  his  strength. 
Descended  of  kings. 


EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  after  these  adjectives  and  participles  is  go¬ 
verned  by  some  preposition  understood ;  as,  cum ,  de,  e,  ex,  in,  &c.  Sometimes 
it  is  expressed ;  as,  Ortus  ex  concubina.  Sallust. 


SYNTAX. - THE  ABLATIVE. 


227 


5  120 


Obs.  1.  Instead  of  the  ablative,  these  adjectives  often  take  an  in- 
finilive,  ora  subjunctive  clause  with  qui  or  ut ;  as,  Dignus  amari. 
Virg.  Dignus  qui  imperet.  Cic.  Non  sum  dignus,  ut  figam  palum  in 
parietem.  Plaut. 

Exc.  Dignus,  indignus ,  and  contentus,  are  sometimes  followed  by 
the  genitive  ;  as,  Dignus  avdrum.  Virg.  For  the  ablative  governed 
by  adjectives  of  plenty  or  want,  see  §  107.  Rule  XI. 


§  120.  THE  ABLATIVE  WITH  THE  COMPARA¬ 
TIVE  DEGREE. 

Rem.  When  two  objects  are  compared  by  means  of  the  compara* 
tive  degree,  a  conjunction  such  as,  quam ,  ac,  atque,  &c.  signifying 
“  than,”  is  sometimes  expressed  and  sometimes  omitted.  In  the  first 
the  construction  of  the  case  falls  under  other  rules  ,  in  the  second  it 
falls  under  the  following,  viz. 

Rule  XXIV.  The  comparative  degree  without 
a  conjunction  governs  the  ablative ;  as 

Dulcior  melle,  Sweeter  than  honey. 

Prcestantior  auro,  More  precious  than  gold. 

Perennius  cere ,  More  durable  than  brass. 

EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  under  this  rule  is  supposed  to  be  governed 
more  properly  by  pres  understood,  which  is  sometimes  expressed ;  as,  Unut 
pres  ceteris fortior. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Of  these  two  modes  of  comparison,  the  ablative  without  a 
conjunction  is  commonly  used  when  the  object  is  compared  with  the 
subject  of  a  proposition  ;  as,  Quid  magis  est  durum  saxo ,  quid  mollius 
undd.  But  when  in  such  a  comparison  quam  is  used,  the  second  sub¬ 
stantive  will  be  in  the  same  case  with  the  first,  because  in  the  same 
construction  ;  as,  Oratio  quam  habitus  fuit  miscrabilior;  Cic.  i.  e. 
Oratio  fuit  miscrabilior  quam  habitus  (fuit.) 

Obs.  2.  When  the  object  is  compared  with  the  predicate  of  a  pro¬ 
position  the  conjunction,  quam  is  commonly  used,  and  then  there  are 
two  cases. 

1st.  If  the  same  thing  is  predicated  of  both  substantives,  they  will 
be  in  the  same  case,  because  they  will  fall  under  the  same  construc¬ 
tion  ;  as,  Ego  homincm  callidiorem  vidi  neminem  quam  Phormionem  ; 
i.  e.  quam  ( vidi, )P/iormone?w. 

2d.  If  the  same  thing  is  not  predicated  of  both  substantives,  the 
latter  will  commonly  be  in  the  nominative  with  sum,  expressed  or  un¬ 
derstood  ;  as,  Mcliorem  quam  ego  sum,  suppono  tibi.  Plaut. 

Obs.  3.  Quam.  is  frequently  understood  after  plus,  minus ,  and  am - 
plius,  and  sometimes  after  major,  minor,  and  some  other  compara¬ 
tives  without  a  change  of  case  ;  as,  Capta  plus  (quam)  quinque  mil • 


228 


SYNTAX. - THE  ABLATIVE. 


§  121 

ha  hominum ,  “  More  than  five  thousand  men  were  taken.”  Obsides 

ne  minorcs  (quam)  octonum  denum  annorurn. 

But  quam,  is  always  expressed  before  the  dative  and  vocative. 

Note. — These  words  are  also  followed  by  the  ablative  without  quam  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  rule. 

Obs.  4.  When  the  second  member  of  a  comparison  is  an  infinitive 
mood,  oi  a  part  of  a  sentence,  quam  is  always  expressed  ;  as,  Nihil 
turpius  est  quam  mentiri. 

Obs.  5.  The  comparative  is  often  followed  by  the  following  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  participles  in  the  ablative;  viz.  opinione,  spe,  expecta¬ 
tion,  fide, — dicto,  solito } — cequo,  credibili,  justo ;  as,  citius  diet o  turn- 
Ida,  aquora  placat.  Virg.  These  ablatives  often  supply  the  place  of 
a  clause  ;  as,  gravius  cequo,  equivalent  to  gravius  quam  cequum  est. 

These  ablatives  are  sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  Liberius  vivtbat,  sc. 
cequo,  11  he  lived  more  freely  than  was  proper  i.  e.  “  he  lived  too 
freely ,”  or  11  rather  freely.” 

Obs.  6.  When  one  quality  is  compared  with  another,  in  the  same 
subject,  the  adjectives  expressing  them  are  both  put  in  the  positive 
degree  with  magis  quam ,  or  in  the  comparative  connected  by  quam  ;  as. 
ars  magis  magna  quam  difficilis.  Triumphus  clarior  quam  gratior, 
“  a  triumph  more  famous  than  acceptable.” 

Obs.  7.  The  prepositions  pree,  ante,  prater,  and  supra ,  are  some¬ 
times  used  with  a  comparative  ;  as,  scelere  ante  alios  immanior 
omnes.  Also  a  superlative  ;  as,  Ante  alios  carissimus.  Pro  is  used 
after  quam,  to  express  proportion  ;  as,  Prcelium  atrocius  quam  pro 
nurnlro  pug nantium. 

Obs.  8.  Magis  and  minus  joined  to  the  positive  degree,  are  equiva¬ 
lent  to  the  comparative  ;  as,  0  luce  magis  delecta.  Magis  and  plus 
joined  with  a  comparative,  only  strengthen  it ;  as,  Nihil  invenies 
magis  hoc  certius. 

Obs.  9.  Inferior  sometimes  governs  the  dative  ;  as,  vir  nulla  arte  cui 
quam  inferior;  the  ablative  also  is  found,  but  it  is  usually  followed  by 
quam. 

Obs.  10.  Alius  is  sometimes  construed  like  comparatives  and  some¬ 
times,  though  rarely,  is  followed  by  the  ablative  ;  as,  non  putes  aliuvn 
sapient e  bonoque  beatum. 


§  121.  ABLATIVE  GOVERNED  BY  VERBS. 

Rule  XXV.  Verbs  of  plenty  and  scarceness, 
for  the  most  part  govern  the  ablative ;  as, 

Abundat  divitiis,  He  abounds  in  riches. 

Caret  omni  culpa ,  He  has  no  fault. 

EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  after  such  verbs,  may  be  governed  by  a  pre» 
position  understood,  sometimes  it  is  expressed ;  as,  vacat  a  culpa.  Or  it  may 
be  used  to  limit  the  verb,  by  showing  in  what  respect  its  meaning  is  to  beta- 
sen;  as,  uhe  abounds  in  respect  of  riches,”  (see  Rule  XXXIV.)  Instances 
of  this  construction,  however,  are  so  common  as  to  warrant  the  rule  here  given- 


§  12  2  SYNTAX. 


ACCUSATIVE  AND  GENITIVE. 


229 


Obs.  1.  Verbs  of  plenty  are  such  as,  Abundo ,  afjluo ,  exubtro ,  rt 
dundo,  suppeddo,  scatco,  See.  of  want,  Carto ,  egeo,  indigeo ,  vaco.  de- 
ficior ,  destituor,  Sec. 

Exc.  1.  EgSo  and  indig  So,  sometimes  govern  the  genitive;  as,  Eget 
arris,  he  needs  money.  Idor.  Non  tarn  artis  indigent ,  quam  laboris, 
Cic.  So,  also,  some  verbs  denoting  to  Jill,  to  abound,  such  as,  abun¬ 
do,  carto,  saturo,  scat  to. 

Rule  XXVI.  Utor ,  abutor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior , 
vescor,  govern  the  ablative ;  as, 

Utitur  fraude,  He  uses  deceit. 

Abutitur  libris,  He  abuses  books. 

Obs.  2.  To  these  add,  gaudeo,  creor,  nascor,  Jido,  vivo,  victito ,  con - 
sto,  laboro ,  (“  to  be  ill;”)  pascor,  epulor,  nitor,  Sec. 

Exc.  2  Potior  often  governs  the  genitive;  as,  Potiri  urbis,  To  get 
possession  of  the  city;  Potiri  rerum,  (never  rebus,)  to  possess  the 
chief  command.  In  such  cases,  the  genitive  may  be  governed  by  im- 
perio  understood. 

Exc.  3.  Potior,  fungor ,  vescor,  epulor  and  pascor,  sometimes  gov¬ 
ern  the  accusative;  as,  Potiri  urban.  Cic.  OJJicia  fungi,  See.  and  al¬ 
so,  in  ancient  writers  utor,  abutor,  and  fruor.  Depasco  and  depascor 
have  the  accusative  always. 

N.  B.  For  the  Ablative  of  the  adjunct,  see  §  106.  R.  VII. 
— For  the  Ablative  governed  by  adjectives  of  plenty ,  or 
leant,  §  107.  Rule  XI. — By  verbs  of  loading,  binding,  &c. 
§  125. — By  passive  verbs,  §  126.  Rule  V. — By  a  preposition , 

$  136.  R.  XLIX.  LI.  LII. 

For  the  Ablative  of  Limitation,  see  §  128. — Of  Cause , 
manner,  &lc.  §  129. — Of  the  place  where,  §  130.  Exc. — From 
which,  §  130.  3. — Of  time  when,  §  131.  R.  XL. — How  long , 
R.  XLI.— Of  measure,  §  132.  R.  XLII. — Of  excess,  R.  XLI  [I. 
— Of  price,  §  133. — In  the  case  absolute,  §  146.  R.  LX. 


§  122.  VERBS  GOVERNING  THE  ACCUSATIVE 

AND  GENITIVE. 

Many  transitive  verbs,  with  the  accusative  of  the  direct  object,  govern 
also  another  word  to  which  the  action  has  an  indirect  or  remote  refer 
ence,  in  the  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  or  ablative,  as  the  nature  of  that 
reference  may  require.  All  verbs  under  these  rules  are  transitive  verbs 
in  the  active  voice,  or  transitive  deponents. 

Rule  XXVII.  Verbs  of  accusing ,  condemning , 
acquitting,  and  admonishing,  govern  the  accusa- 


230 


SYNTAX.  —  ACCUSATIVE  AND  GENITIVE. 


$  I  22 


tive  of  a  person,  with  the  genitive  of  a  thing  ;  as, 

Arguit  mefvrti,  He  accuses  me  of  theft 

Meipsum  inertia  condemno ,  I  condemn  myself  of  laziness. 

Ilium  homicidii  absolvunt ,  They  acquit  him  of  manslaughter. 

Monet  me  officii ,  He  admonishes  me  of  my  duty. 

To  this  rule  belong  verbs  of, 

Accusing;  as,  Accuso,  ago ,  appello,  arccsso,  anquiro ,  arguo,  coar . 
g'io,  capto,  increpo,  increpito,  urgeo,  incuso,  insimulo,  interrogo,  pos • 
tulo,  alligo,  astringo,  defero,  compel lo. 

Condemning;  as,  Damno ,  condemno ,  infamo ,  noto,  convinco,  pre- 
hendo,  deprehendo ,  judico,  plector. 

Acquitting  ;  as,  Absolvo,  libero,  purgo,  and  perhaps  solvo. 

Admonishing  :  as,  Moneo,  admoneo,  commoneo ,  commonef acio . 

Obs.  1.  With  many  of  these  verbs,  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the 
crime  or  punishment,  the  ablative  is  used  with  or  without  a  preposi¬ 
tion  ;  as,  Accusare  de  negligentia.  Cic.  Liberare  culpa.  Id.  The 
ablatives  crimine  and  nomine  are  often  inserted  before  the  genitive, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  full  form  of  the  construction  ;  as,  Ar- 
cessere  aliquem  crimine  ambitus.  Liv.  Sometimes  the  punishment 
is  put  in  the  accusative  after  ad  or  in;  as  Damndre  ad  pcenam,  in 
metallum,  rarely  in  the  dative  ;  as,  Damnatus  morti.  Multo  has  al¬ 
ways  the  ablative  ;  as,  multare  poena ,  pecunia ,  exsiliis,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  Accuso ,  incuso ,  insimulo ,  together  with  verbs  of  ad¬ 
monishing,  instead  of  the  genitive,  are  followed  by  the  accusative, 
especially  of  the  neuter  pronouns,  hoc,  id,  illnd,  quod,  h.c.  and  their 
plurals;  as,  Si  id  me  non  accusas ;  Plaut.  Eos  hoc  monio,  Cic.  rarely 
by  the  accusative  of  nouns  ;  as,  Sic  me  insimuldre  falsum  f acinus. 
The  accusative  in  this  case  may  be  considered  as  governed  by  the 
preposition  secundum,  or  quod  attinet  ad. 

Obs.  3.  Many  verbs  signifying  to  accuse,  and  among  them  some 
of  the  verbs  enumerated  under  this  rule,  do  not  govern  the  genitive 
of  the  crime,  but,  as  active  verbs,  govern  it  in  the  accusative  by  Rule 
XX  ;  as,  Arguo  culpam.  Ejus  avaritiam  perjidiamque  accusdrat. 
When  thus  construed,  the  immediate  object  of  condemnation  is  the 
crime  •  in  the  other  construction  it  is  the  person. 

Obs.  4.  Verbs  of  admonishing  instead  of  the  genitive  are  some¬ 
times  followed  b}r  an  infinitive  or  clause  ;  as,  Soror  monet  Succur- 
rere  Lauso  Turnum.  Virg.  Monet  ut  suspiciones  vitet.  Caes. 

Rule  XXVIII.  Verbs  of  valuing  with  their  own 
case,  and  sometimes  without  a  case,  govern  such 
genitives  of  degree  as  magni,  parvi,  nihili ;  as 

AZstimo  te  magni,  I  value  you  much. 

Mihi  stetit  pluris,  It  cost  me  more. 

Est  parvi,  It  is  of  little  value. 

EXPLANATION.— By  its  own  case  is  meant,  the  case  which  the  verb  usually  go¬ 
verns.  Verbs  without  case,  as,  sum  fio,  existo.  Sec.,  have  the  genitive  only.  The 
adjectives  magni  parvi,  Sec.,  may  agree  with  pretii,  momenti,  or  the  like  understood, 
and  the  construction  perhaps  come  under  R.  VII.  It'  so,  it  would  account  for  the 
ablative  sometimes  used  after  the  same  verbs  See  Obs.  6. 


$123 


SYNTAX. - ACCUSATIVE  AND  DATIVE. 


231 


Verbs  of  valuing  are  such  as  cestimo,  existimo,  duco,  facio,  habeo, 
pendeo,  puto,  taxo ,  sum,  fio,  consto,  &cc.j  also,  refert  and  interest. 

Among  the  genitives  of  degree  governed  by  such  verbs  are  the 
adjectives  tanti,  quanti,  pluris,  minoris,  magni,  pluftmi,  minimi, 
parvi,  quantilibet .  &c  ,  and  the  substantives  assis,  Jlocci,  nauci, 
pili,  teruncii,  hujus,  &c.  For  the  genitive  of  price,  see  §133,  Exc. 

Obs.  5.  JEqui  and  boni  are  put  in  the  genitive  after  facio  and  con¬ 
sul  o  ;  as,  JEqui  bonique  facio,  I  take  this  in  good  part. 

Obs.  6.  Instead  of  the  genitive,  cestimo,  and  a  few  others,  some¬ 
times  take  the  ablative.  After  habeo,  puto,  duco,  the  ablative  with 
pro  is  common  ;  as,  Pro  nihilo  putdre.  Refert  and  Interest ,  with 
their  own  case,  §113,  Exc.  I.,  often  take  nihil,  or  a  neuter  accusa¬ 
tive,  or  an  adverb,  instead  of  the  genitive,  to  express  degree  ;  as, 
Mea  nihil  refert .  Multum  interest.  So,  also,  nihil  is  used  with  ces- 
timo  and  moror. 


$123.  VERBS  GOVERNING  THE  ACCUSATIVE  AND 

DATIVE. 


Rule  XXIX.  Verbs  of  comparing ,  giving ,  de¬ 
claring ,  and  taking  away ,  govern  the  accusative 
and  dative ;  as, 


Compdro  Virgilium  Homero, 
Suurn  cuique  tribuito, 

Narras  fabulam  surdo, 
Eripuit  me  morti, 


I  compare  Virgil  to  Homer. 

Give  everv  man  his  own. 

*/ 

You  tell  a  story  to  a  deaf  man. 
He  rescued  me  from  death. 


EXPLANATION. — This  is  a  rule  of  very  extensive  application.  When,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  thing  done,  (expressed  by  the  active  verb  and  its  accusative,) 
we  express  also  the  remote  object  to  which  it  is  done,  that  object  will  be  put  in 
the  dative  ;  thus,  in  the  above  examples,  the  verb  and  the  accusative  following 
it,  express  the  whole  of  that  which  is  represented  as  done  to,  or  with  reference 
to,  the  object  expressed  in  the  dative;  i.  e.  Comparo  Virgilium,  expresses  all 
here  said  to  be  done,  {Homero,)  to  Homer, — I  compare  Virgil  to  him.  Narras 
fabulam,  expresses  all  here  said  to  be  done,  (surdo,)  to  the  deaf  man, — you 
tell  a  story  to  him;  and  so  Eripuit  me,  together, express  what  is  here  done, 
(morti)  to  death, — he  rescued  me  from  it ;  and  so  of  other  examples.  See  this 
more  fully  illustrated,  Gr.  Gram.  $  152.  Obs.  3. 


OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Verbs  of  comparing  and  taking  away,  and  some  others, 
instead  of  the  dative  often  take  a  preposition  and  its  case  ;  as,  Com - 
parareunam  rem  cum  alia, — adaliam, — res  inter  se.  Eripuit  me  morti , 
— morte , — a,  or  ex  morte,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  Instead  of  the  accusative,  these  verbs  have  frequently  an 
infinitive  mood  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  Da  mihi  falltre,  Reddes 
mihi  dulce  loqui,  &c.  Hor.  Perfacile  factu  esse  illis  probat  ;  Itemque 
Dumnorlgi,  ut  idem  conarttur  persuadet.  Caes.  This  construction  is 
especially  common  with  such  verbs  as,  Aio,  dico,  inquqm,  persuade o» 


232 


SYNTAX. - TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 


§  124 


respondeo,  &c.  when  the  thing  said,  replied,  &c.  though  a  sentence 
or  a  paragraph,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  accusative,  and  theperson  01 
persons  to  whom  said  is  put  in  the  dative. 

Obs.  3.  Several  verbs  governing  the  accusative  and  dative  are  of¬ 
ten  construed  differently  ;  as,  Circumdare  moenia  oppido,  or  oppidum 
mcenibus,  “  to  surround  a  city  with  walls.”  Inter cludtre  commeatum 
alicui,  or  aliquem  comeatu,  “  to  intercept  one’s  provisions.”  InduZre , 
exuere  vestem  sibi,  or,  se  vesti.  So  the  following,  Universos  frumento 
donavit.  Nep.  and  Prcedam  militibus  donat.  Cses.  AspergZre  sale 
carnes,  or  aspergere  salem  cornibus.  Plin. 

Obs.  4.  The  accusative  is  sometimes  understood;  as,  Nubire  alicui 
(sc.  se.)  Cedere  alicui  (sc.  locum,)  detrahere  alicui ,  (sc.  laudem ,)  &c. 

Obs.  5.  Verbs  signifying  motion  or  tendency  to  a  thing,  instead  of 
the  dative,  have  an  accusative  after  them  with  the  preposition  ad ; 
as,  Ad  prcetorern  hominem  traxit. 


§  124.  VERBS  GOVERNING  TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 

Rule  XXX.  Verbs  of  asking ,  and  teaching ,  go¬ 
vern  two  accusatives,  the  one  of  a  person,  and 
the  other  of  a  thing ;  as, 

Poscimus  te  pacem,  We  beg  peace  of  thee. 

Docuit  me  grammaticam,  He  taught  me  grammar. 

EXPLANATION. — The  first  accusative  under  this  rule  belongs  to  Rule  XX. 
he  second  may  be  governed  by  quod  attinet  ad,  or  secundum  understood,  mean¬ 
ing  as  to,  in  respect  of .  Or  the  reason  of  this  rule  maybe,  that  most  of  the 
verbs  under  it,  admit  either  of  the  nouns  after  them,  as  their  immediate  object. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Verbs  of  asking,  which  govern  two  accusatives,  are  Rogo, 
oro,  exoro,  obsecro,  precor ,  posco,  reposco,  Jlagito,  &c.  Of  teaching, 
Docto,  edocto ,  dedocco,  erudio.  To  these  may  be  added,  celo ,  to  con¬ 
ceal;  as,  Antigonus  iter  omnes  celat.  Nep. 

Obs.  2.  Verbs  of  asking,  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  person, 
often  take  the  ablative  with  ab  or  ex;  as,  Veniam  oremus  ab  ipso. 
So  also,  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  many  verbs  both  of 
asking  and  teaching  sometimes  take  the  ablative  with  de ;  as,  De  itu 
nZre  hostium  senatum  edocet.  Sail.  Sic  ego  te  eisdem  de  rebus  interrbgem. 

Obs.  3.  Some  verbs  of  asking  and  teaching,  are  never  followed  by 
two  accusatives,  but  by  the  ablative  of  the  person,  with  a  preposi¬ 
tion;  such  as,  exigo,  peto,  qucero,  scitor,  sciscitor,  and  the  following 
verbs  of  teaching,  viz:  imbuo,  instituo,  instruo ,  and  some  others,  are 
followed  by  the  ablative  of  the  thing,  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes 
without  a  preposition;  and  sometimes  they  are  otherwise  construed 

Obs.  4.  Many  other  active  verbs,  frequently  besides  the  accusative 
of  a  person,  take  also  an  accusative  of  nihil,  or  of  the  neuter  pro- 


§  125-6  SYNTAX. - ACCUSATIVE  AND  ABLATIVE.  233 


nouns,  hoc,  id,  quid,  or  of  adjectives  of  quantity;  as,  Fabius  ea  me 
monuit.  Cic.  Nee  te  id  consulo .  Id.  These  verbs,  however,  in  their 
signification,  generally  resemble  verbs  under  this  rule;  or  the  accu¬ 
sative  of  the  thing  may  be  governed  by  a  preposition  understood 


§  125.  VERBS  GOVERNING  THE  ACCUSATIVE 

AND  ABLATIVE. 

Rule  XXXI.  Verbs  of  loading ,  binding ,  cloth¬ 
ing ,  depriving ,  and  their  contraries,  govern  the 
accusative  and  ablative ;  as, 

Onerat  naves  auro,  He  loads  the  ships  with  gold. 

EXPLANATION. — The  accusative  under  this  rule  belongs  to  Rule  XX.  The 
ablative  may  be  governed  by  a  preposition  understood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Verbs  of  loading  are  OnZro,  cumulo,  premo,  opprimo,  ob • 
ruo,  implto,  explto,  complto. — Of  unloading,  leva,  exontro ,  &c. — Of 
binding,  astringo,  ligo,  alllgo ,  devincio,  impedio,  irretio,  illaquSo ,  &c. 
Of  loosing,  solvo,  exsolvo ,  libtro ,  laxo,  expedio,  &c. — Of  depriving, 
privo,  nudo,  orbo,  sp olio ,  fraud o ,  emungo. — Of  clothing,  vestio,ami cio , 
induo,  cingo ,  tego,  velo,  cordno. — Of  unclothing,  exuo,  discingo,  See. 

To  these  maybe  added  many  other  verbs,  such  as,  muto,  dono ,  mu~ 
nero,  remuncro,  communico ,  pasco,  beo,  impertior,  dignor,  afficio ,  pro - 
sequor,  assequor,  spargo,  oblecto,  See.  with  which,  however,  in  many 
cases,  the  ablative  may  come  under  Rule  XXXIV.  and  XXXV. 

Obs.  2.  These  verbs  are  sometimes  followed  by  the  ablative  with  a 
preposition  expressed;  as,  Solvire  aliquem  ex  catenis.  Cic.  The  ab¬ 
lative  is  sometimes  understood;  as,  complet  naves,  sc .viris.  Virg. 

Obs.  3.  Several  of  these  verbs  denoting  to  fill,  likewise  govern 
the  genitive;  as,  Adolescentem  suce  temeritatis  implet,  “  He  fills  the 
youth  with  his  own  rashness. M  Some  of  them  also  vary  their  con¬ 
struction;  as,  xnduit  or  exuit  se  vestibus,  or  vestes  sibi.  Abdicate  ma- 
gistratum.  Sail.  Abdicate  se  magistratu.  Cic.  See  §  123.  Obs.  3. 


§  126.  CONSTRUCTION  WITH  PASSIVE  VERBS. 

Rule  XXXII.  Verbs  that  govern  two  cases  in 
the  active  voice,  govern  the  latter  of  these  in  the 
passive;  as, 

Accusor  furti,  I  am  accused  of  theft. 

Virgilius  comparatur  Homero,  Virgil  is  compared  to  Homer. 
Doceor  grammaticam,  I  am  taught  grammar. 

Navis  oneratur  auro,  The  ship  is  loaded  with  gold 


20* 


234  SYNTAX. - PASSIVE  VERBS.  §  126 

This  rule  may  be  subdivided  into  the  five  following,  which  will  be 
much  more  convenient  in  practice,  than  the  general  Rule. 

Rule  I.  Verbs  of  accusing ,  condemning ,  &c.  in  the  passive 
voice,  govern  the  Genitive. 

Rule  II.  Verbs  of  valuing  in  the  passive,  govern  such 
genitives  as,  magni ,  parvi,  nihili ,  &c. 

Rule  III.  Verbs  of  comparing ,  giving ,  declaring  and  tak¬ 
ing  away ,  &c.  in  the  passive,  govern  the  dative. 

Rule  IV.  Verbs  of  asking ,  and  teaching,  &c.  in  the  pas¬ 
sive,  govern  the  accusative. 

Rule  V.  Verbs  of  loading ,  binding ,  clothing ,  depriving , 
&c.  in  the  passive,  govern  the  ablative. 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  to  the  passives  of  all  verbs  under  Rules 
XXVII.  to  XXXI.  inclusive.  In  all  of  these  the  “  latter  case1'  is  that  which 
with  the  active  voice  expresses  the  remote ,  and  never  the  immediate  object  of 
the  verb.  In  all  constructions  under  this  rule  it  must  be  noticed  that  that  which 
was,  or  would  be  the  accusative  after  the  verb  in  the  active  voice,  must  be  its 
nominative  in  the  passive,  otherwise  the  construction  does  not  belong  to  this 
rule.  Thus,  Active,  Narras  fabulam  surdo.  Passive,  Narratur  fabula  surdo. 
Here  “fabulam,”  the  direct  object  of  narras,  is  changed  into  the  nominative 
or  subject  of  narratur ;  and  surdo  remains  the  same  in  both  sentences.  The 
“  latter  case,”  in  other  words,  the  remote  object  of  the  active  voice  is  never,  in 
Latin,  converted  into  the  subject  of  the  passive  except  in  a  few  instances  which 
are  manifest  Graecisms.  See  Greek  Gram.  §  154.  Obs.  2.  In  English,  however, 
there  are  some  expressions  in  which  this  is  allowed.  See  Eng.  Gram.  §  49. 
Obs.  and  Crombie’s  Etymology,  p.  270. 

Hence,  where,  in  some  cases  the  Greek  and  English  languages  admit  of  two 
forms  of  expression,  the  Latin  idiom  admits  of  only  one,  e.  g.  “  This  was  told 
to  me,”  or  “  I  was  told  this,”  is  rendered  into  Latin  by  the  first  form;  thus, 
Hoc  mihi  dictum  est.  But  we  cannot  say  according  to  the  second  form,  Hoc  dic- 
tus  sum. 

Obs.  1.  When  the  active  voice  is  followed  by  three  cases,  §  114. 
Obs.  3.  the  passive  has  the  two  last ;  as,  Hoc  missum  est  mihi  muni- 
ri,  u  This  was  sent  as  a  present  to  me.”  Here  muniri  is  the  dative 
of  the  end.  R.  XIX. 

Rule  XXXIII.  Passive  verbs  frequently  govern 
the  dative  of  the  doer;  as, 

Viz  audior  ulli ,  I  am  scarcely  heard  by  any  one. 

Scriberis  Vario,  You  shall  be  described  by  Varius. 

Nulla  audita  mihi  sordrum.  None  of  your  sisters  have  been 

heard  of  by  me. 

EXPLANATION. — This  construction  is  used  chiefly  by  the  poets,  and  by 
them  as  a  substitute  for  another  still  more  common;  namely,  that  the  volun¬ 
tary  agent  after  the  passive  voice,  is  put  in  the  ablative  with  a  or  ab  and  so 
comes  under  Rule  XLIX.  as,  (in  the  active  voice,)  Clodius  me  diligit ,  “  Clodius 


§127-8  SYNTAX.-  —CIRCUMSTANCES. - LIMITATION.  235 


loves  me.”  (in.  the  passive,)  A  Clodio  diligor ,  “  I  am  loved  by  Clodius.  The 
preposition  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  colitur  Uni  g  era  turba 

Obs.  2.  After  passive  verbs  the  princip  al  agent  or  actoi,  is  usually 
expressed  in  the  ablative  with  the  preposition  a,  or  ah  ;  as,  Laudatur 
ab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis,  11  He  is  praised  by  these,  he  is  blamed  by 
those.”  But, 

The  secondary  agent,  means,  or  instrument  after  transitive  verbs  in  the 
active  or  passive  voice  or  after  intransitive  verbs,  is  put  in  the  accusative 
with  per’,  as,  Per  Thrasybulum  Lyci  filium,  ab  exercitu  recipitur.  Nep. ; 
but  oftener  in  the  ablative  by  Rule  XXXV. 

Obs.  3.  The  passive  participle  in  - dus ,  has  the  agent  or  doer  almost 
always  in  the  dative;  and  besides,  when  it  agrees  with  the  subject  of  a 
sentence,  conveys  the  idea  of  obligation  or  necessity;  as,  Seme  l  omnibus 
calcanda  cst  via  leii ,  u  The  way  of  death  (is  to  be,  i.  e.)  must  once 
be  trod  by  all.  Hor.  Adhibenda  cst  nobis  diligentia,  11  Diligence  must 
be  used  by  us,”  i.  e.  we  must  use  diligence.  Cic.  Ccesari  omnia  uno 
tempore  erant  agenda,  “  All  things  had  to  be  done  by  Caesar  at  one 
time.’"  §  49.  6. 

Obs.  4.  The  accusative  of  place  or  time  after  intransitives  in  the 
passive  voice,  is  not  governed  by  the  verb,  but  by  a  preposition  un¬ 
derstood,  or  comes  under  other  rules;  as,  itur  Athenas,  Rule  XXXVII. 
pugnatumest  biduum.  R.  XLI .dormitur  totamnodem.ix.'XlA.  We  find, 
however ,  Tola  mihi  dormitur  hyems :  Nodes  vigilantur  amaree ;  Oce- 
anus  adltur.  Tac. 


§  127.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Words  and  phrases  are  often  thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a 
sentence  in  an  adverbial  manner,  to  express  some  circumstance 
connected  with  the  idea  of  the  simple  sentence,  and  which  do  not  depend 
for  their  case  on  any  word  in  the  sentence  to  which  they  belong,  but 
on  a  preposition  or  adverb  or  other  word  understood,  or  are  by  com¬ 
mon  usage  put  in  a  particular  case  in  certain  circumstances  without 
government  or  dependence  on  any  words  either  expressed  or  under¬ 
stood. 

To  this  may  be  referred  circumstances.  1.  Of  limitation. — 2.  Of 
cause ,  manner ,  &.c. — 3.  Of  place — 4.  Of  time. — 5.  Of  measure.— $ 
Of  price  ;  as  follows. 


$  128.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  LIMITATION. 

A  particular  qualification  of  a  general  expression,  made  in  English 
by  the  phrase  “  in  respect  of,”  11  with  regard  to,”  is  expressed  in 
Latin  by  the  ablative  or  more  briefly,  as  follows  : 


236 


SYNTAX. 


•OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. - CAUSE,  &C. 


§129 


Rule  XXXIV.  Respect  wherein ,  and  the  part 
affected  are  expressed  in  the  ablative ;  as, 


Piet  ate  filius , 
Jure  peritus, 
Pedibus  ceger, 


In  affection  a  son. 
Skilled  in  law. 
Lame  in  his  feet. 


EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  under  this  rule  is  used  to  limit  the  significa¬ 
tion  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  and  may  be  variously  rendered  to  express 
the  nature  of  the  limitation  intended ;  as,  in,  in  respect  of,  with  respect  to,  with 
regard  to ,”  &c. 

Obs.  1.  The  part  affected,  after  adjectives  and  verbs,  belongs  to  this 
rule,  containing,  as  it  does,  a  similar  limitation  of  a  general  expression, 
as  in  the  last  of  the  above  examples.  The  following  are  of  a  similar 
character.  Anxius  animo.  Tac.  Crine  ruber ;  ore  niger;  Mart.  Con- 
tremisco  tota  menteet  omnibus  artubus.  Cic.  Animoque  et  corpbre  tor - 
pet.  Hor. 

Exc.  The  part  affected,  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  construction,  is 
sometimes  expressed  in  the  accusative  ;  as,  Nudus  membra ,  “  Bare 
as  to  his  limbs.”  Virg.  So,  Sibita  colla  tumentem.  Id.  Expltri  men- 
temnequit.  Id.  Fractus  membra.  Hor.  Tempera  cinctus.  Virg.  This 
construction  is  in  imitation  of  the  Greek,  (See  Gr.  Gr.  §  1  7.  Obs.  1.) 
The  accusative  may  be  governed  by  a  preposition  understood. 

Note. — The  accusative  in  such  phrases  has  usually  been  accounted  for  by 
supplying  quoad,  or  quod  ad,  signifying  “  as  to,”  “  with  regard  to.”  Crombie 
in  his  Gymnasium,  has  clearly  shewn  that  neither  of  these  solutions  are  cor¬ 
rect.  That  quoad  never  governs  an  accusative,  nor  has  the  meaning  here  as¬ 
signed  to  it;  that  quod  ad  is  not  justified  by  any  good  authority  ;  but  that  the 
proper  supplement  is,  quod  attinet  ad,  “as  pertains  to;”  quod  spectat  ad,  “as 
regards.”  See  Gymnasium,  p.  261.  et  seq.  4th  Ed. 

Obs.  2.  To  this  rule  maybe  referred  the  matter  of  which  any  thing 
is  made  ;  as,  -Ere  cavo  clypeus ,  a  shield  of  hollow  brass.  But  here 
the  preposition  is  commonly  expressed  ;  as,  Templum  de  marmore. 
In  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  the  matter  is  sometimes  put  in  the  geni¬ 
tive  ;  as  crateres  argenti ,  “  goblets  of  silver.”  Gr.  Gr.  §  156.  Obs.  3. 


§  129.  THE  ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE,  MANNER,  &c. 

Rule  XXXV.  The  cause,  manner,  means,  and 
instrument,  are  put  in  the  ablative ;  as, 


Palleo  metu, 

Fecit  suo  more , 

Auro  ostroque  decori 
Scribo  calamo, 


I  am  pale  for  fear. 

He  did  ii  after  his  own  way. 
Decked  with  gold  and  purple. 
I  write  with  a  pen. 


EXPLANATION. — The  ablative  in  this  rule  is  probably  governed  by  a  prepo¬ 
sition  understood, — as  there  are  numerous  instances  in  which  the  preposition 
is  expressed.  The  cause  will  be  known  by  putting  the  question,  “  Why  ?”  or 
“  wherefore  ?”  The  manner,  by  “  How  ?”  The  mean’-,  by  “  By  what  means?” 
The  instrument,  by  “Wherewith?” 


§  130  SYNTAX. OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. PLACE.  23 1 


Obs  1.  The  cause  sometimes  takes  the  prepositions  per,  propter, 
ob,  with  the  accusative  ;  or  de,  e,  ex,  prce,  with  the  ablative;  as, 
Depulsus  per  invidiam  ;  Fessus  de  via. 

Obs.  2.  The  manner  is  sometimes  expressed  by  a ,  ab ,  cum,  de,  ex , 
per  ;  as,  De  more  suo.  The  means  frequently  by  per,  and  cum  ;  as, 
cum  meis  copiis  omnibus  vexavi  Amanienses.  See  §  126.  Obs.  2. 

Obs.  3.  The  instrument  properly  so  called  seldom  admits  a  prepo¬ 
sition,  though  among  the  poets,  a,  ab,  de,  sub,  are  sometimes  used  ; 
as,  Fedora  trajedus  ab  ense  ;  Exerctre  solum  sub  vomtre. 


§  130.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  PLACE. 

The  circumstances  of  place  may  be  reduced  to  four  particulars. 
1.  The  place  where,  or  in  which. — 2.  The  place  whither  or  to  which. 
— 3.  The  place  whence,  ox  from  which. — 4.  The  place  by,  or  through 
which. 

1ST.  B.  The  following  rules  respecting  place  refer  chiefly  to  the 
names  of  towns.  Sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  the  names  of  coun. 
tries,  provinces,  islands,  &c.  are  construed  in  the  same  way.  With 
these,  however,  the  preposition  is  commonly  added. 

1.  The  Place  where,  or  in  which. 

Rule  XXXVI.  The  name  of  a  town  denoting 
the  place  ivhere ,  or  in  which ,  is  put  in  the  genitive; 
as, 

Vixit  Romce,  He  lived  at  Rome. 

Mortuus  est  Mileti,  He  died  at  Miletus. 

Exc.  But  if  the  name  of  the  town  where  or  in 
which ,  be  of  the  third  declension,  or  plural  num¬ 
ber,  it  is  expressed  in  the  ablative ;  as, 

Habitat  Carthagine,  He  dwells  at  Carthage. 

Studuit  Athenis,  He  studied  at  Athens. 

Obs.  1.  When  the  name  of  a  town  is  joined  with  an  adjective,  or  com¬ 
mon  noun  in  apposition,  a  preposition  is  commonly  added  ;  as,  Romce 
in  celeb ri  urbe  ;  or  in  Romce  celebri  urbe ;  ox  in  Roma  celebriurbe  ; 
or  sometimes,  Romce  celebri  urbe. 

Note.— In  this  construction  the  name  of  a  town  in  the  third  declension  fre¬ 
quently  has  the  ablative  singular  ini;  as,  Habitat  Carthagini.  Fuere  Sicyoni 
jamdiu  Dionysia.  Plant.  Tiburi  genitus.  Suet. 

Obs.  2.  The  name  of  the  town  ivhere ,  or  in  which,  is  sometimes, 
'.hough  rarely  put  in  the  ablative  when  it  is  of  the  first  or  second  de¬ 
clension  ;  as,  Tyro  rex  decsdit;  for  Tyri,  “  The  king  dies  at  Tyre 
fust.  Hi  jus  exemplar  Roma  nullum  habemus.  Vitruv. 

Obs.  3.  The  preposition  in  is  sometimes  expressed  before  the  ab- 
alive;  as.  In  Philippis  quidam  nunciavit.  Suet.  At,  ox  near  a 


238  SYNTAX. - OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. - PLACE.  §  130 


place  is  expressed  by  ad,  or  apud  with  the  accusative  ;  as,  Ad,  or  apud 
Trojam,  11  at  or  near  Troy.” 

2.  The  Place  whither,  or  to  which. 

Rule  XXXVII.  The  name  of  a  town  denoting 
the  place  whither ,  or  to  which ,  is  put  in  the  accu¬ 
sative  ;  as, 

Venit  Romam ,  He  came  to  Rome. 

Profectus  est  Athenas ,  He  went  to  Athens. 

Obs.  4.  Among  the  Poets,  the  town  to  which  is  sometimes  put  in  the 
dative  ;  as,  Carthagini  nuncios  mittam.  Hor. 

Obs.  5.  After  verbs  of  telling ,  and  giving,  when  motion  to  is  im¬ 
plied,  the  name  of  a  town  is  sometimes  put  in  the  accusative  j  as, 
Romam  erat  nunciatum, 11  The  report  was  carried  to  Rome.”  Mcssanam 
literas  dedit. 

3.  The  place  whence,  or  from  wthich. 

Rule  XXXVIII.  The  name  of  a  town  whence 
or  from  ivhich ;  or  by  or  through  which ,  is  put  in 
the  Ablative;  as, 

Discessit  Corintho,  He  departed  from  Corinth, 

Laodicea  iter  fecit,  He  went  through  Laodicea. 

Obs.  6.  The  place  by  or  through  which,  however,  is  commonly 
put  in  the  accusative  writh  per  ;  as,  Per  Thebas  iter  fecit.  Nep. 

4.  Domus  and  Rus. 

Rule  XXXIX.  Domus  and  rus  are  construed  in 
the  same  way  as  names  of  towns ;  as, 

Manet  domi,  He  stays  at  home. 

Domum  revertitur,  He  returns  home. 

Porno  arcessitus  sum,  I  am  called  from  home 

So  also. 

Vivit  rure  or  ruri,  He  lives  in  the  country. 

Abiit  rus,  He  is  gone  to  the  country. 

Rediit  rure,  He  is  returned  from  the  country. 

Obs.  7.  Humi,  militice,  and  belli,  are  likewise  construed  in  the 
genitive  like  names  of  towns  ;  as,  Jacet  humi,  u  he  lies  on  the 
ground  Domi  el  militice,  (or  belli,)  u  At  home  or  abroad.” 

Obs.  8.  When  domus  is  joined  with  an  adjective  the  preposition  is 
commonly  used  ;  as,  In  domo  paternd.  So,  ad  domum  paternam,  Ex 
domo  paternd , — Except  with  mevs,  tuus ,  swus,  noster,  vester,  regius , 
and  alienus;  then  it  follows  the  rule.  When  domus  has  another  sub¬ 
stantive  in  the  genitive  after  it,  it  may  be  with  or  without  a  preposi¬ 
tion  ;  as  Deprehensus  est  domi.  domo,  or  in  domo  Ccesuris. 


6  131 


SYNTAX. - OF  CIRCUMSTANCES. - TIME. 


239 


Obs.  9.  Rus  and  rare  in  the  singular  joined  with  an  adjective  are 
used  with,  or  without  a  preposition.  But  ritra  in  the  plural,  is  never 
without  it. 

Obs.  10.  The  names  of  countries,  provinces,  and  all  other  places 
except  towns,  are  commonly  construed  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  Na- 
tus  in  Italia •  Abiit  in  Italiam ;  Rediit  ex  Italia;  Transit  per  Italiam , 
& c.  A  few  cases  occur,  however,  in  which  names  of  countries,  pro¬ 
vinces,  Sec.  are  construed  like  the  names  of  towns  without  a  prepo¬ 
sition  ;  as,  Pompeius  Cypri  visus  est,  Sec.  Cses. 

Peto,  u  I  seek,”  or  “  go  to,”  always  governs  the  accusative  as  an 
active  verb  without  a  preposition;  as,  Petivit  Egyptum,  “  he  went 
to  Egypt.”  ✓ 


$  131.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  TIME. 

Rule  XL.  Time  when,  is  put  in  the  ablative ; 
as, 

Venit  hord  tertid,  He  came  at  the  third  hour. 

Rule  XLI.  Time  how  long ,  is  put  in  the  accu¬ 
sative  or  ablative ;  as, 

Mansit  paucos  dies ,  He  staid  a  few  days. 

Sex  mensibus  abfuit ,  He  was  absent  six  months. 

EXPLANATION. — A  precise  period  or  point  of  time,  is  usually  put  in  the  ab- 
ative, — continuance  of  time,  not  marked  with  precision,  for  the  most  part  in 
the  accusative. 

Note. — It  must  be  observed  here,  that  the  point  of  time  under  this  rule,  must 
coincide  with  the  time  of  the  verb  with  which  it  is  connected,  otherwise  the 
rule  does  not  hold  good. — Thus,  ‘‘He  invited  me  to  dine  with  him  next  day,” 
is  properly  rendered  under  this  rule.  Sccum  postero  die  ut  pranderem  invita- 
vit;  because  postero  die  and  pranderem  are  cotemporary.  But  if  we  change 
the  verb  pranderem  for  a  noun,  postero  die  will  not  do  in  the  ablative,  but 
must  be  changed  thus;  ad  prandium  me  invitavit  in  posterum  diem.  Postero 
die  in  this  sentence,  would  mean  that  the  invitation  was  given  next  day,  and 
would  be  rendered  in  English,  “  Next  day  he  invited  me  to  dinner.” 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  All  the  circumstances  of  time  are  often  expressed  with  a 
preposition;  such  as,  in,  de ,  ad,  ante ,  circa,  per,  Sec.  Sometimes  ad 
or  circa,  is  understood  before  hoc,  illud,  id,  isthuc,  with  cetatis,  tern- 
poris,  horce,  Sec.  following  in  the  genitive;  as,  id  temporis,  (sc.  ad) 
for  co  tempore ,  Sec. 

Obs.  2.  Precise  time,  before  or  after  another  fixed  time,  is  express¬ 
ed  by  ante,  or  post,  regarded  as  adverbs,  either  with  the  accusative  or 
ablative;  aliquot  ante  annos.  Paucis  ante  diebus.  Paucos  post  die* , 
&cc. 

Sometimes  quam  with  a  verb,  are  added  to  ante  or  post;  as,  Paucu 
post  diebus  quam  Luca  discessZrat.  A  few  days  after  he  had  depart 
ed  from  Luca  Sometimes  post  is  omitted  before  quam;  as,  die  vi- 
gesimd  quam  creatus  trat. 


240  SYNTAX. OF  CIUCU  M  STANCES. - MEASURE.  §  132 

Obs.  3.  Instead  of  postquam,  we  sometimes  find  ex  quo,  or  quum, 
or  a  relative  agreeing  with  the  preceding  ablative;  as,  Octo  diebvs 
quibus  has  lit&ras  dabain.  Eight  days  after  I  gave  these  letters. 

Obs.  4.  The  adverb  abhinc,  is  used  to  express  past  time,  joined 
with  the  accusative  or  ablative,  without  a  preposition;  as,  Factum 
est  abhinc  biennio ,  or  biennium.  It  was  done  two  years  ago. 


$  132.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  MEASURE. 


Rule  XLII.  Measure  or  distance  is  put  in  the 
accusative,  and  sometimes  in  the  ablative ;  as, 


Mums  est  decern  pedes  altus, 

Urbs  distat  triginta  millia  or  tri- 
ginta  millibus  passuum , 

Iter  or  itinSre  unius  diei , 


The  wall  is  ten  feet  high. 

The  city  is  distant  thirty  miles. 
One  day’s  journey. 


OBSERVATIONS. 


Obs.  1.  The  accusative  or  ablative  of  measure  is  put  after  such 
adjectives,  and  verbs  ol  dimension  ;  as,  Longus,  latus,  crassus,  pro - 
futidus,  altus ;  Patet,  porrigitur,  eminct,  he.  The  names  of  mea¬ 
sure  are,  pes,  cubitus ,  ulnus ,  digitus,  palmus,  mille  passuum,  a 
mile,  he. 

Obs.  2.  The  accusative  or  ablative  of  distance  is  used  only  after 
verbs  which  express  motion  or  distance  ;  as,  eo ,  curro ,  duco ,  ab - 
sum,  disto,  he.  The  accusative  under  this  rule  may  be  governed  by 
ad,  or  per  understood,  and  the  ablative  by  a,  or  ah. 

Obs.  3.  When  the  measure  of  more  things  than  one  is  expressed, 
the  distributive  numeral  is  commonly  used  ;  as,  Muri  sunt  denos 
pedes  alti,  “  The  walls  are  each  ten  feet  high.”  Sometimes  denum 
pedum,  for  denorum  is  used  in  the  genitive,  governed  by  ad  mensuram, 
understood.  But  the  genitive  is  used  to  express  the  measure  of 
things  in  the  plural  only. 

Obs.  4.  The.  distance  of  the  place  where  any  thing  is  said  to  be 
done,  is  usually  expressed  in  the  ablative  or  in  the  accusative  with  a 
preposition  ;  as,  Sex  millibus  passuum  ab  urbe  consedit  j  or  ad  sex 
millia  passuum.  Coes. 

Obs.  5.  Sometimes  the  place  from  which  distance  is  estimated  is  not 
expressed,  though  the  preposition  governing  it  is,  and  maybe  render¬ 
ed  off,  distant ,  &c.,  as  Ab  sex  millibus  passuum  abfuit;  He  was  six 
miles  off,  or  distant.  (Scil.  Roma,  from  Rome.) 

Rule  XLII  I.  The  measure  of  excess  or  defi¬ 
ciency  is  put  in  the  ablative;  as, 

Sesquipede  longior,  Taller  by  a  foot  and  a  half. 

Novem  pedibus  minor,  Less  by  nine  feet. 

Quanto  doctior,  tanto  submissior,  The  more  learned,  the  more  humble 

Obs.  6.  To  this  rule  are  to  be  referred  the  ablatives  tanto,  quanto, 
qu)  eo,hoc  aliquant o,  mult o,  paulo,  nihil o,  he.,  frequently  joined 
to  comparatives,  and  sometimes  with  superlatives. 


§  133-4 


SYNTAX. - OF  ADVERBS 


241 


§  133.  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  PRICE. 

Rule  XLIV.  The  price  of  a  thing  is  put  in  the 
ablative ;  as, 

Constitit  talento,  It  cost  a  talent. 

Vendidit  hie  auro  patriam,  This  man  sold  his  country  for  gold. 

Exc.  But  tanti,  quanti,  plums ,  minor  is,  are  used  in  the 
genitive  ;  as, 

Quanti  constitit  ?  How  much  cost  it  ? 

Non  vendo  pluris  quam  cceteri,  I  do  not  sell  for  more  than  others. 

Obs.  1.  When  joined  with  a  noun,  tanti,  quanti ,  &c.  are  put  in 
the  ablative  ;  as,  Quam  tanto  pretio  mercatus  est.  Tanto  quanto, 
and  plure  are  sometimes  though  rarely  found  without  a  noun ;  as, 
plure  venit,  “  it  is  sold  for  more.” 

Obs.  2.  The  ablative  of  price  is  often  an  adjective  without  a  noun; 
as,  magno,  permagno ,  parvo ,  paululo,  tantulo,  minimo,  plurimo, 
vili,  nimio.  These  refer,  however,  to  some  such  noun  as  pretio , 
cere,  &c.  understood.  Valeo  is  found  with  an  accusative. 


$  134.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  ADVERBS. 

Rule  XLV .  Adverbs  are  joined  to  verbs,  adjec¬ 
tives,  and  other  adverbs,  to  modify  and  limit  their 
signification;  as, 

Bene  scribit,  He  writes  well. 

Fortiter  pugnans ,  Fighting  bravely. 

Egregie  fidelis,  Remarkably  faithful. 

Satis  bene,  Well  enough. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  joined  with  nouns,  as,  Homerus  plane 
orator,  Homer  evidently  an  orator. 

Obs.  2.  The  adverb  is  usually  placed  near  the  word  modified  or 
limited  by  it. 

Negatives. 

Obs.  3.  Two  negatives  in  Latin,  as  well  as  in  English,  destroy  each 
other,  or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative;  as,  Nec  non  senserunt, 
“  nor  did  they  not  perceive;”  i.  e.  et  senserunt,  11  and  they  did  per¬ 
ceive.’’  So,  Non  potcram  non  exanimari  metu.  Cic.  Non  sum  nesci - 
us,  i.  e.  scio  ;  haud  nihil  est,  it  is  not  nothing,”  i-  e.  “  it  is  some¬ 
thing;”  nonnulli ,  “  not  none,”  i.  e.  “  some;”  nonnunquarn,  “  not 
never,”  i.  e.  <f  sometimes;”  non  nemo,  11  not  nobody,”  i.  e.  “  some¬ 
body,”  &c. 

Obs.  4.  Exc.  In  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  however,  two  negatives 
in  Latin,  as  well  as  in  English,  sometimes  make  a  stronger  nega 

21 


242 


SYNTAX. 


OF  ADVERBS. 


§135 


tive;  as,  Neque  ille  hand  objiciet  mihi ,  He  will  not  by  any  means 
object  to  me;”  Jura  te  non  nociturum  homini  nemlni,  &c.  Neque,  and 
nec,  and  sometimes  non,  are  especially  thus  used  after  a  negative; 
as,  Non  me  carminibus  vincet,  nec  Orpheus,  nec  Sinus. 

Obs.  5.  Non  is  sometimes  omitted  after  non  modo,  or  non  solum, 
when  followed  in  a  subsequent  clause  by  ne  quidem ;  as,  Mihi  non 
modo  irasci,  (i.  e.  non  irasci ,)  sed  ne  dolere  quidem  impune  licet. 
Sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  is  omitted  after  sed,  or  verum,  with  etiam; 
as,  Non  modo  ea  futxira  timet,  (i.  e.  non  timet,)  verum  etiam  fert  susli - 
net que  pr essentia.  For  ne,  and  ut ,  with  timeo,  &c.  see§  140.  Obs.  6. 

Obs.  6.  Certain  adverbs  are  joined  to  adjectives  in  all  the  degrees 
of  comparison,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  greater  force  to  their 
signification;  as, 

1st.  To  the  positive  are  joined  such  adverbs  as,  apprime ,  admbdum, 
vehementer,  maxime,  perquam,  valde,  oppido,  and  per,  in  composition; 
as,  gratum  admodum,  very  agreeable;  perquam  puerile ,  very  childish; 
Sec.  In  like  manner,  Parum,  multum,  nimium,  tantum,  quantum ,  ali- 
quantum-,  as,  parum  fir mus;  multum  bonus. 

2d.  To  the  comparative  are  joined,  Paulo, nimio,  aliquanto,  eo,  quo, 
hoc,  impendio,  nihilo ;  as,  Eo  gravior  est  dolor  quo  culpa  major. — Cic. 
See  §  132.  Obs.  6.  Sometimes,  also,  parum,  multum,  Sec.  as  with  the 
positive. 

3d.  To  the  superlative  are  joined  Facile,  meaning  11  certainly,” 
11  undoubtedly;”  longe,  quam ,  also  tanto ,  quanto ,  multo,  &,c.  as,  Fa¬ 
cile  doctissimus,  certainly  the  most  learned;  longe  bellicosissima,  (sc. 
gens,)  by  far  the  most  warlike;  quam  maximas  potest  copias  armat , 
he  arms  as  great  forces  as  possible. 

4th.  Quam,  (and  also  ut,)  is  also  used  as  an  intensive  word  with  the 
positive,  but  in  a  sense  somewhat  different,  resembling  an  exclama¬ 
tion;  as,  Quam  difficile  est !  how  difficult  it  is!  quam ,  or  ut  crudelis! 
how  cruel!  Flens  quam  familiar iter ,  weeping  how  affectionately, 
i.  e.  very  affectionately ;  quam  severe,  how  severely,  i.  e.  very  severely. 


§  135.  CASES  GOVERNED  BY  ADVERBS. 

Rule  XL VI.  Some  adverbs  of  time ,  place ,  and 
quantity ,  govern  the  genitive  ;  as, 

Pridie  ejus  diei,  The  day  before  that  day. 

Ubique  gentium,  Every  where. 

Satis  est  verborum,  There  is  enough  of  words. 

1.  Adverbs  of  time  governing  the  genitive  are,  Inter  ea,  postea ,  inde, 
tunc;  as,  Interea  loci,  in  the  mean  time;  postea  loci,  afterwards;  inde 
loci ,  then;  tuns  temporis,  at  that  time. 

2.  Of  place,  Ubi,  and  quo,  with  their  compounds,  ubique,  ubicunque, 
ubivis,  ubiubi,  quovis,  &c.  Also,  eo,  hue,  huccine,  unde,  usquam, 
nusquam ,  longe,  ibidem,  See.  ;  also,  usquam,  nusquam,  unde  ter - 
rarum  or  gentium ;  longe  gentium ;  ibidem  loci,  eo  audacice, — vecor- 
dice — miseriarum,  Sec.  to  that  pitch  of  boldness — madness — misery,  &c 


SYNTAX. - PREPOSITIONS. 


243 


$  13b 


3.  Of  quantity,  Abunde ,  affatim,  largiter,  nimis ,  satis,  parum,  mi 
nime ;  as,  Abunde  gloria  ;  affatim  divilidrum ;  largiter  auri ;  satis  do . 
quentia  ;  sapientia  parum  est  illi,  or  habet,  He  has  enough  of  glory, 
riches,  &c.  Minime  gentium,  by  no  means. 

Obs.  1.  Ergo ,  (for  the  sake  of,)  instar  and partim,  also  govern  the 
genitive;  as,  Donari  virtutis  ergo . 

Obs.  2.  Pridie  and  Postridie,  govern  the  genitive  or  accusative;  as, 
Pridie  Kalendas,  sup.  ante;  Postridie  Kalendas,  sup.  post. 

Obs.  3.  En  and  Ecce  govern  the  nominative  or  accusative;  as,  En 
causa ;  Ecce  homo  or  hominem,  sometimes  a  dative  is  added;  as,  Ecce 
duas  aras  tibi.  Yirg.  In  such  constructions,  a  verb  may  be  under¬ 
stood.  The  dative  may  be  referred  to,  §  109.  3. 

Obs.  4.  Certain  prepositions  used  adverbially  by  the  poets,  are 
followed  by  the  dative;  as,  Mihi  clam  est,  it  is  unknown  to  me.  Con - 
tra  nobis. 


Rule  XLVII.  Some  derivative  adverbs  govern 
the  case  of  their  primitives ;  as, 


Omnium  optime  loquitur, 
Convenientcr  naturce, 

Venit  obviam  ei, 

Pr oxime  castris  or  castra, 


He  speaks  the  best  of  all. 
Agreeably  to  nature. 

He  came  to  meet  him. 
Next  the  camp. 


EXPLANATION. — In  the  first  example,  optime  is  derived  from  optimus, 
winch  governs  the  genitive  by  Rule  X.  §  107.  Convenienter  and  obviam,  are  de¬ 
rived  from  conveniens  and  obvius,  which  govern  the  dative  by  Rule  XYI.  §  111. 
And  proxime  is  derived  from  proximus,  which  governs  the  dative  or  accusative 
bv  Rule  XVI.  Obs  5.  §  111. 


§  136.  CASES  GOVERNED  BY  PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule  XLVIII.  Twenty-eight  prepositions,  ad, 
apud,  ante ,  &c.  govern  the  accusative ;  as, 

Ad  patrem,  To  the  father. 

Rule  XLIX.  Fifteen  prepositions,  a,  ab ,  abs, 
&c.  govern  the  ablative ;  as, 

A  patre,  From  the  father. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  Clam,  one  of  these  fifteen,  is  sometimes  followed  by  the 
accusative  ;  as,  clam  vos,  without  your  knowledge.  When  followed 
by  a  genitive  or  dative  ;  as,  Clam  patris.  Ter.  Mihi  clam  est.  Plaut. 
A  substantive  may  be  understood,  or  they  may  be  regarded  as  adverbs 

Obs.  2.  Tenus  after  a  plural  noun,  commonly  has  it  in  the  genitive  , 
as  crurum  tenus.  Virg. 


244 


SYNTAX. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


§  136 


Rule  L.  The  prepositions  in,  sub ,  super ,  and 
subter ,  denoting  motion  to,  or  tendency  towards , 
govern  the  accusative  ;  as, 


Venit  in  Urbem , 

Amor  in  te, 

Sub  jugum  missus  est , 
Incldit  super  agmina , 


He  came  into  the  city. 

Love  towards  thee. 

He  was  sent  under  the  yoke. 
It  fell  upon  the  troops. 


Rule  LI.  The  prepositions  in  and  sub  denoting 
situation,  govern  the  ablative ;  super  and  subter  ei¬ 
ther  the  accusative  or  ablative ;  as, 


Jacet  in  terra ,  He  lies  upon  the  ground. 

Media  in  urbe,  In  the  middle  of  the  city. 

In  poetis,  Among  the  poets. 

Sub  mccnibus,  Under  the  walls. 

Obs.  3.  To  both  of  these  rules  there  are  some  exceptions.  In¬ 
stances  occur  in  which  in  and  sub  denoting  motion  to ,  or  tendency  to¬ 
wards ,  instead  of  the  accusative  govern  the  ablative  ;  as  In  conspectu 
meo  audet  venire  ;  sub  jugo  dictator  hostem  misit.  Others  are  found  in 
which  they  govern  the  accusative  when  they  denote  situation  ;  as, 
Mxhi  in  mentem  fuit.  Hostes  sub  montem  consedisse,  &c. 

Obs.  4.  The  preposition  in  with  the  accusative  usually  signifies  in¬ 
to,  towards ,  until ,  for,  against ;  with  the  ablative  in,  upon,  among. 
With  both  cases,  however,  considerable  variety  of  translation  is  ne¬ 
cessary  to  convey  correctly  the  idea  of  the  original.  The  following 
are  instances,  “  In  the  case  of,7’  Talis  in  host e  fuit  Priamo.  Virg. 
“  On  account  of,”  In  quo  facto  domum  revocatus ; — In  sex  mensibus , 
11  Within  six  months  ;”  In  dies,  u  from  day  to  day.”  So,  in  koras, 
4f  from  hour  to  hour”7  in  capita ,  u  per  head  in  pueritia,  11  during 
boyhood  $”  in  hoc  tempdre,  11  at  this  time,”  &c. 

Obs.  5.  The  preposition  is  frequently  understood  before  its  case  ; 
as,  Devenere  locos.  Virg.  Homo  id  cetatis.  Cic.  Propior  montem. 
Sail.  In  which  ad  is  understood.  So,  Nunc  id  prodeo ,  sc.  ob; — Ter. 
Maria  aspera  juro,  sc.  per.  Se  loco  movere,  sc.  e,  or  de  ;  Quid  ill o  fa¬ 
cias?  sc.  in  or  de,  “  what  can  you  do  in  his  case?”  Ut  patria  expelle- 
retur,  sc.  ex.  Nep. 

Obs.  6.  Sometimes,  but  much  more  rarely,  the  case  is  omitted 
after  the  preposition  ;  as,  circum  Concordice ,  sc.  cedem.  Sail.  Multis 
post  annis,  i.  e.  post  id  tempus. 


Rule  LII.  A  preposition  in  composition  often 
governs  its  own  case;  as, 


Adeamus  urbem,  Let  us  go  to  the  city. 

Exeamus  urbe,  Let  us  go  out  of  the  city. 

EXPLANATION. — By  “its  own  case”  is  meant  the  case  it  governs  when  not 
m  composition.  This  rule  takes  place  only  when  the  preposition  may  be  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  verb,  and  placed  before  the  case,  without  altering  the  sense. 
Thus,  Adeamus  urbem,  and  Eamus  ad  urbem ,  express  the  same  thing. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VEBB. 


TENSES. 


245 


§  137 


Obs.  7.  The  preposition  is  often  repeated  after  the  compound  word; 
the  case  is  then  governed  by  the  preposition  repeated;  as,  Exitee 
finibus.  Caes.  Nunquam  acctdo  ad  te,  quin  abs  te  abeam  doctiur.  Ter. 

Note. — Some  verbs  never  have  the  preposition  repeated  after  them;  such  as, 
iffaris,  alloquor ,  allatro ,  alluo,  accolo;  circum,  with  vcnio,  eo ,  sto,  sedeo,volo;  obeo 
"rater eo,  abdico,  ejfero ,  everto,  & c.  Some  compounds  with  inter,  and  prater, 
commonly  omit  the  preposition.  The  compounds  of  in,  oh,  and  sub  generally 
take  the  dative;  those  of  super  generally  the  accusative. 

Obs.  8.  Some  verbs  compounded  with  e,  or  ex,  are  followed  by  an 
accusative  or  ablative  ;  as,  exire  lirnen.  Ter.  Exirc  septis.  Virg. 
Some  words  compounded  with  prce,  take  an  accusative  ;  as,  Tibur 
aquxe  proejiuunt.  Hor.  In  some  of  these  cases,  however,  the  accusa¬ 
tive  may  be  governed  by  prater  or  extra  understood. 

Obs.  9.  The  case  governed  by  the  preposition  in  composition  is 
sometimes  omitted ;  as,  Emittbre  servum,  sc.  manu.  Plaut.  EvomZre 
virus,  sc.  ore,  Cic.  Eductre  copias,  sc.  castris.  Caes. 

For  the  construction  of  interjections,  see  §  117. 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


§  137.  CONNEXION  OF  TENSES. 


The  tenses  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  so  far  as  relates 
to  their  construction  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  Primary  and 
Secondary ,  as  follows, 

Primary.  Secondary 

Present,  Imperfect. 

Perfect  definite.  §  44.  III.  Perfect  indefinite.  §  44.  III. 

Futures.  Pluperfect. 

With  the  primary  tenses  may  be  classed  the  Imperative  Mood. 

Of  these  tenses  the  Primary  are  used  to  express  actions,  &c.  as 
present  or  future  ;  the  Secondary,  in  the  recital  of  these  actions  as 
past. 

In  the  construction  of  sentences  consisting  of  different  members, 
the  subjunctive  mood  in  the  subordinate  or  secondary  parts,  usually 
corresponds  in  time  to  the  tense  in  the  primary  or  leading  part 
Hence  the  following  Rule. 

Rule  LIII .  Any  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood 
may  follow  a  tense  of  the  same  class  in  the  in¬ 
dicative;  as, 


Pres.  Lego, 

Perf.Def .Legi,  >  ut  discam, 
Fut.  Legam ,  ) 

Imfer.  Lege,  ut  discas. 

Imper.  Legcbam, 


I  read, 

I  have  read ,  >  that  I  may  learn 


I  will  read. 

Read  that  you  may  learn 
I  was  reading,  ) 

Per  iNDEF.Legi,  V  ut  disccrem.I  read,  >  that  I  might  learn. 

Plup.  Legtram .  )  I  had  read,  ) 

21* 


246 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


§  138-9 

EXPLANATION. — In  clauses  connected,  the  present,  the  perfect  and  pen. 
phrastic  future  with  sim  or  fuerim ,  §  79.  8,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  may  fol¬ 
low  either  the  present,  or  the  perfect  definite,  or  the  futures,  of  the  indicative,  oi 
the  imperative  mood.  In  like  manner,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect  definite,  and  the 
periphrastic  future  with  essem  or  fuissem  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  may  follow 
either  the  imperfect,  or  the  perfect  indefinite,  or  the  pluperfect  in  the  indicative 

Obs.  1.  When  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative  is  used  in  narra¬ 
tion  tor  the  past,  §  44.  I.  3.  it  may  be  followed  by  the  secondary 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  as  Legdtos  mittuntut  pacem  mpetrarent. 

Obs.  2.  Primary  tenses  are  sometimes  followed  by  secondary,  and 
secondary  by  primary,  in  order  to  express  actions  whose  time  is  dif¬ 
ferent. 

Obs.  3.  When  the  subjunctive  follows  an  infinitive  or  participle  in 
the  primary  clause,  the  class  of  tenses  employed,  usually  corresponds 
with  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which  the  infinitive  or  participle  de¬ 
pends. 

N.  B.  This  rule  and  the  observations  under  it,  are  to  be  regarded 
as  stating  only  general  principles,  the  deviations  from  which,  in  ex¬ 
pressing  the  endless  variety  of  relations  among  actions  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  time,  dependence  ;  &c.  can  be  learned  only  by  practice  and 
close  attention  to  classic  usage. 

For  the  interchange  of  tenses  in  the  same  and  in  different  moods, 
see  observations  on  the  tenses,  §  44  and  45. 


§  138.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  Latin  to  express  what  is  actual  and 
certain,  in  an  absolute  and  independent  manner,-  as,  rsni,  vldi,  v'ici , 
11  I  came,  saw,  and  conquered.”  It  is  also  used  in  direct  and  inde¬ 
pendent  interrogations;  as.  Quid  agis  ?  what  are  you  doing? 

The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  conditional  and  dependent  clauses, 
to  denote,  not  what  is  contingent  or  uncertain,  but  what  is  supposed, 
or  admitted  as  fact;  as,  Si  vales  bene  est,  if  you  are  in  health  it  is 
well,  i.  e.  11  since  you  are  in  health.” 

The  signification  and  use  of  this  mood,  in  its  several  tenses,  have 
been  specified,  §  44. 


*  139.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SUBJUNC¬ 
TIVE  MOOD. 

[For  the  character  and  meaning  of  this  mood,  in  its  several  tenses, 

see  §  42.  II.  and  §  45.] 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  dependent  clauses 
only,  and  consequently,  must  be  preceded  by  another  verb 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


247 


$  140 

in  the  indicative,  imperative,  or  infinitive  mood,  expressed  or 
understood,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  conjunction,  a 
relative  or  indefinite  word.  On  this  fact  the  whole  construc¬ 
tion  of  this  mood  depends. 

2.  The  subjunctive  mood,  in  Latin,  is  used  in  all  cases 
where  the  potential  or  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  Eng¬ 
lish.  §  42,  II.  2d,  and  Obs.  3. 

So  far,  the  construction  of  the  subjunctive  in  Latin  agrees,  gene¬ 
rally,  with  the  English  and  the  Greek.  Its  use,  however,  is  much 
more  extensive  in  Latin,  being  used  in  many  cases  where  the  indica¬ 
tive  is  used  in  these  languages.  In  the  construction  of  sentences, 
this  mood  is  subject  to  the  following  rules. 


$  140.  SUBJUNCTIVE  AFTER  CONJUNCTIONS,  &c. 

Rule  LIV.  The  conjunctions?^,  quo ,  licet ,  ne,  uti- 
nam ,  and  dummodo ,  &c.,  and  words  used  indefinitely 
in  dependent  clauses,  for  the  most  part,  require 
the  subjunctive  mood ;  as, 

Lego  ut  discain  I  read  that  I  may  learn. 

Nescit  quis  sim.  He  knows  not  wTho  I  am. 

EXPLANATION. — The  conjunctions  requiring  the  subjunctive  mood,  are  those 
which  imply  doubt ,  contingency ,  uncertainty ,  and  the  like,  as  follows : 

1.  Ut,  quo,  “  that ne,  quominus,  “that  not,”  referring  to 
the  result,  end,  or  design  ;  take  the  subjunctive;  thus, 

1st.  Ut,  “  that,”  denoting  a  result,  after  such  words  as  sic ,  ita,  adeo , 
tam,  talis,  tantus,  is,  ejusmodi,  is  followed  by  the  subjunctive. 

2d.  Ut,  “  that,”  and  ne,  “  that  not,”  denoting  purpose  or  design-,  or 
when  “  that”  is  equivalent  to  “in  order  that,”  “  so  that,”  take 
the  subjunctive. 

3d.  After  verbs  signifying  to  request,  admonish,  advise ,  commission , 
encourage,  command,  and  the  like;  or  to  endeavor ,  aim  at,  or 
accomplish;  as,  facia,  efficio,  &c.;  and  sometimes  to  permit,  to 
wish,  to  he  necessary  &c.,  ut  and  ne  usually  take  the  subjunctive. 
4th.  Ut,  with  the  subjunctive,  usually  follows  such  impersonals  as 
fit,  fitri  non  potest,  accidit,  incidit,  occurrit,  contingit,  evenit, 
usu  venii,  rarum  est.  sequitur ,  futurum  est,  reliquum  est,  relin- 
quitur  restat,  superest,  opus  est,  est;  signifying,  it  happens .  it 
Occurs,  it  remains,  See. 

2.  Si  “if ut  si,  quasi,  ac  si,  ceque  ac  si,  perinde  ut  si% 
iliter  ac  si,  velut  si,  tanquam,  ceu,  “  as  if,  ”  expressing  a 
condition  or  supposition  commonly  take  the  subjunctive. 

3.  Ut,  licet ,  eiiam  si,  quamvis,  “  although  quin  for  qut 
non,  utnon ,  or  quominus ,  take  the  subjunctive. 


248 


bYNTAX. - MOODS. 


$  141 

4.  Antequam ,  priusquam ,  “  before  donee,  quoad , 

“  until modo,  dum,  dummodo ,  “  provided,”  and  the  par¬ 
ticles  of  wishing  utinam ,  O  si,  or  uti,  for  utinam ,  com¬ 
monly  take  the  subjunctive. 

5.  Interrogative  words  used  indefinitely  in  dependent  claus¬ 
es  or  containing  an  indirect  question,  take  the  subjunctive. 

The  words  thus  used  are,  the  particles  an,  ne,  num,  utrum ,  anne, 
annon; — the  adverbs  ubi,  quo,  unde,  quorsum,  quamdiu,  quoties,  cur , 
quare,  quamobrem,  quemadmbdum,  quomodo,  ut,  quam,  quantopere; 
the  adjectives,  quantus ,  qualis ,  quot ,  quotas ,  uter;  quis,  qui,  cujas,  &c. 

Obs.  1.  Many  of  these  conjunctions  are  used  also  with  the  indica¬ 
tive  mood.  They  are  to  be  regarded  merely  as  connectives,  or  used 
adverbially,  denoting  circumstances  of  time,  manner,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  Many  other  conjunctions  are  used  sometimes  with  the  indica¬ 
tive,  and  sometimes  with  the  subjunctive  mood;  such  as,  Quum  or  cum , 
etsi,  tamenetsi,  quanquam,  si,  sin,  ne,  nisi,  siquidem,  quod,  quia,  &c. 
Quoniam ,  quando,  and  quando  quidem,  usually  have  the  indicative. 

Obs.  3.  Quum  or  cum,  when  it  signifies  time,  merely,  takes  the  in 
dicative,  and  is  translated  when;  as,  tempus  fuit  qxjum  homines  vaga- 
bantur.  When  it  denotes  a  connection  of  thought,  implying  depen¬ 
dence,  it  takes  the  subjunctive,  and  may  be  translated  variously,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  nature  of  the  connection,  since,  although,  as  soon  as, 
seeing  that,  &c.,  as,  cum  ea  ita  sint,  u  since  these  things  are  so.” 

Obs.  4.  In  narration  quum  is  joined  with  the  imperfect,  and  pluper¬ 
fect  subjunctive,  even  when  it  relates  to  time,  but  then  the  event  de¬ 
noted  by  the  subjunctive,  usually  relates  to  that  expressed  in  the 
clause  on  which  the  subjunctive  depends,  not  only  in  regard  to  time, 
but  also  in  some  sense  as  a  cause.;  as  cum  sciret  Clodius  iter  neces - 
sarium  Miloni  esse  Lanuvium,  Roma  subito  ipse  prof  ectus  est. 

Obs.  5.  The  conjunction  ut,  is  elegantly  omitted  after  volo,  nolo , 
rogo,  precor,  censeo,  suadeo,  licet,  oportet,  necesse  est ,  and  the  like. 
Also  after  the  imperatives  sine,fac,  or  facito;  as,  Precor  venias,  u  I 
beg  (that)  you  would  come;”  Fac  facias ,  “  see  (that)  you  do  it.” 

Obs.  6.  After  the  verbs  timeo,  verSor,  and  the  like,  ut  is  used  in  a 
negative  sense;  as,  u  that  not,”  and  ne  in  an  affirmative  sense;  as, 
Timeo  ut  faciat ,  11 1  fear  that  he  will  not  do  it.”  Timeo  ne  faciat, 
u  I  fear  that  he  will  do  it.”  In  a  few  examples,  however,  ut  seems 
to  have  an  affirmative  and  ne  a  negative  meaning. 

6.  In  oblique  discourse  §  141,  R.  VI.  Exp.  the  verb  in 
dependent  clauses  takes  the  subjunctive  after  any  conjunc¬ 
tive  term. 


$  141.  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  AFTER  THE  RELATIVE. 

Rule  LV.  The  relative  qui ,  qua,  quod,  requires 
the  subjunctive,  when  it  refers  to  an  indefinite , 
negative  or  interrogative  word — to  words  imply- 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


249 


§  141 

ing  comparison , — or  assigns  the  reason ,  cause  or 
end  of  that  which  precedes, — and  also  in  all  cases 
of  oblique  narration. 

This  General  Rule  may  be  subdivided  into  the  following, 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

Rule  I.  When  the  relative  qui,  quce ,  quod ,  refers  to  an 
indefinite ,  negative ,  or  interrogative  word,  it  requires  the 
subjunctive  mood  ,  as, 

Sunt  qui  dicant,  Some  people  say. 

Nemo  est  qui  haud  intelligat, There  is  no  one  who  does  not  understand. 
Quis  est  qui  utilia  fugiat  ?  Who  is  there  that  shuns  what  is  useful? 

EXPLANATION  — This  rule  takes  effect  only  when  the  antecedent  is  some¬ 
thing  indefinite  and  when  the  relative  clause  is  the  predicate  of  the  sentence, 
i.  e.  when  it  expresses  what  is  affirmed  or  denied  respecting  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  and  has  for  its  antecedent,  the  indefinite,  negative  or  interrogative  itself, 
and  not  any  intervening  word.  These  are  indispensable  conditions  of  this  rule. 

Obs.  1.  The  indefinites  referred  to  in  this  rule  are  the  indefinite 
pronouns.  §  34.  Obs.  1,  and  §  35.  (except  quidam ,)  and  the  periphras¬ 
tic  expressions,  est  qui,  sunt  qui,  fuerunt  qui,  11  Some  one,”  “  some 
to  which  may  be  added  the  verbs  reperio,  invenio,  habeo ,  adsum ,  desum, 
venio,  and  some  others  used  in  a  similar  manner,  by  which  indefinite 
expressions  are  formed  nearly  of  the  same  import  with  est  qui,  sunt 
qui,  &cc.;  as,  Omnis  celas  quod  agat  inveniet. 

The  negative  antecedents  most  common  under  this  rule  are  such  as 
Nemo  est ,  nullus  est,  unus  non  est,  alius  non  est  or  extat,  nihil  est,  nec 
or  non  quisquam  est,  vix  ullus  est,  nec  ullus  est,  vix  decimus  quisque  est, 
(or  any  other  ordinal  used  in  a  similar  manner,)  non  multi  sunt ,  non 
multum  est ;  also,  non  est,  or  nihil  est,  meaning  “  there  is  no  cause,” 
or  “  reason  why,-'  and  also  after  non  or  nihil  habZo.  After  these 
last,  quod,  11  which,”  must  follow,  governed  by  propter  understood  j 
as,  Non  est  quod  scribas. 

The  interrogative  expressions  in  the  antecedent  clause  under  this 
rule  are  chiefly  these.  Quis  est  ?  quantus  est  ?  Uter  est  ?  Ecquis  est  ? 
Numquts  est  ?  An  quisquam  est  ?  an  est  aliquis  ?  Quotus quisque  est  l 
Quotus  est  ?  Quot  sunt?  Quam  multi  sunt  ?  And  also,  Quid  est  ?  Num~ 
quid  est  ?  “  What  cause  ?”  as,  Num  quid  est  quod  timeas  ?  u  why  should 
you  fear?” 

Note. — Interrogatives  under  this  rule  are  of  a  general  character  and  usually 
imply  a  negation:  as,  Quis  est  qui  facial  ?  “  Who  is  there  that  does  it?”  i.  e. 
f<  nobody  does  it.” 

Rule  II.  The  relative  is  followed  by  the  subjunctive  when 
the  relative  and  antecedent  clauses  involve  a  comparison,  or 
when  the  latter  expresses  the  purpose,  object  or  design,  of 
something  expressed  by  the  former  ;  as, 

Dignus  qui  ametur ,  c£  Worthy  to  be  loved.”  Quis  tarn  esset  amen$ 
qui  semper  vivtret  ?  “  Who  would  be  so  foolish  as  to  live  always?” 


250 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


§  141 

EXPLANATION. — In  all  cases  under  this  rule  the  relative  is  equivalent  toul 
with  the  personal  pronoun  representing  the  antecedent ;  i.  e.  it  is  used  for  ut 
ego,  ut  tu,  ut  Me,  utnos,  ut  vos,  ut  illi.  In  such  cases,  ut  with  the  persona* 
pronoun,  is  frequently  used  instead  of  the  relative.  Here,  also,  the  relative 
clause  must  belong,  not  to  the  subject,  but  to  the  predicate  of  the  sentence, 
for  in  such  cases  only  can  it  be  resolved  into  ut  ego,  See. 

Obs.  2.  The  relative  is  used  in  this  sense  and  requires  the 
subjunctive, 

1st.  When  it  comes  after  dignus,  indignus,  idoneus,  and  the  like  in 
the  predicate  ;  as,  Patres,  si  dignum  qui  ( ut  ille)  secundus  ab  Romulo 
numeretur,  crearitis,  auctores  fient. 

2d.  When  it  follows  tarn,  tantus,  adeo  •,  as ,  Quis  est  tam  Lynceus, 
qui  in  tantis,  tenebris  nihil  offendat?  i.  e.  ut  in  tantis,  &c.  11  Who  is 
so  quick  sighted  that  he  would  not  stumble  in  such  darkness?” — In 
like  manner  when  it  follows  talis,  ejusmodi,  hujusmodi,  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  is  commonly  used  ;  as,  est  innocentia  affectio  talis  animi  qui  no- 
ceat  nemini. — Also  after  is,  ille ,  and  hie  in  the  sense  of  talis ;  as, 
Non  tu  is  es  qui  nescias,  u  you  are  not  such  a  one  as  not  to  know.” 
Sometimes  in  such  cases  ut  takes  the  place  of  qui ;  as,  Neque  enim 
is  es,  Catilina,  ut  te  pudor  revocarit,  &c. 

3d.  When  it  follows  a  comparative  with  quam  ;  as,  Major  sum  quam 
cui  possit  fortuna  nocere. 

4th.  When  the  relative  clause  expresses  the  purpose,  object  or  de¬ 
sign,  for  which  the  person  mentioned  in  the  antecedent  clause  is  ap¬ 
pointed,  or  the  thing  spoken  of  is  possessed  or  done ;  as,  Lacedcemonii 
legatos  Athenas  miserunt  qui  (i.  e.  ut  illi )  eum  absenlem  accusurent 
In  such  sentences  the  relative  and  subjunctive  may  be  properly  ren¬ 
dered  to,  in  order  to ;  thus,  u  The  Lacedemonians  sent  ambassadors 
to  Athens  to  accuse  (or  in  order  to  accuse )  him  in  his  absence.”  Some¬ 
times  here  also,  ut  takes  the  place  of  the  relative  ;  as,  missus  sum  ut 
(i.  e.  qui)  te  adducerem. 

Obs.  3.  When  qui  combines  with  its  signification  as  a  relative,  or 
when  the  preceding  clause  implies,  a  force  equal  to  so  that,  such  that, 
the  man  to,  such  a  man  as,  it  requires  the  subjunctive  ;  as,  stultum  est 
timere  quod  vitare  non  possis,  “  It  is  foolish  to  fear  that  which  (i.  e. 
such  a  thing  as)  you  cannot  avoid.”  In  all  such  cases  the  antecedent 
clause  conveys  a  vague  and  general  idea.  i.  e.  the  person  or  things 
referred  to  are  regarded  as  a  species  or  class  rather  than  as  individuals. 

Rule  III.  When  the  relative  with  its  clause  assigns  the 
cause  or  reason  of  the  action  or  event  announced  by  the  an¬ 
tecedent  clause,  it  requires  the  subjunctive  ;  as, 

Peccavisse  mihi  videor  qui  ate  discessZrim,  “I  think  that  I  have 
erred  in  having  (or,  because  1)  left  you.” 

EXPLANATION. — In  all  constructions  of  this  kind,  the  relative  is  equivalent 
to  quum,  quod,  quia,  or  quoniam  ego,  tu,  is,  nos,  See.  signifying  il  because, ”  or 
(t  seeing  that  I,”  “  thou,”  Sec. 

Obs.  4.  The  relative  has  this  force  in  the  expressions  quippe  qui ,  ut 
qui ,  utpote  qui,  and  consequently  is  followed  by  the  subjunctive  ;  as 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


251 


§  141 

Libros  no "■  contemno,  equidem ,  quippe  qui  nunquam  legerim,  “  I  do 
not  indeed  despise  books  for ,  (or  because )  I  have  never  read  them.” 

Rule  IV.  When  qui  possesses  a  power  equal  to  quan- 
quam ,  or  etsi  is,  or  to  si,modo ,  or  d’ummodo,  ‘‘Although — if — 
provided  that  he,  she,  it,”  <fcc.  it  requires  the  subjunctive 
mood ;  as, 

Tu  aquam  pumice  postulas,  qui,  ipse  sitiat,  “You  demand  water 
from  a  pumice  stone,  though  itself  is  parched  with  thirst.”  Laco,  con- 
silii  quamvis  egregii  quod  non  ipse  afferret  inimicus ,  “  Laco  was  the 
enemy  of  any  measure,  however  excellent,  if  (i.  e.  provided  that)  he 
himself  did  not  propose  it.” 

Rule.V.  The  relative  qui ,  takes  the  subjunctive  after  unus 
and  solus;  when  they  restrict  the  affirmation  to  a  particular 
subject;  as, 

Hcec  est  una  content  io  qua  adhuc  permansh  it ,  “  This  is  the  only 
dispute  which  has  remained  till  this  time.” 

Rule  VI.  In  oblique  or  indirect  discourse,  the  relative  re¬ 
quires  the  subjunctive  mood  ;  as, 

Socrates  dictrc  solebat,  omnes  in  eo  quod  scirent  satis  esse  eloquen - 
tes.  “  Socrates  was  accustomed  to  say,  that  all  were  eloquent  enough 
in  that  ivhich  they  knew.” 

EXPLANATION. — Discourse  is  said  to  be  direct ,  when  a  writer  or  speaker 
delivers  his  own  sentiments, — oblique,  when  a  person  relates  in  his  own  lan¬ 
guage,  what  another  speaker  or  writer  said  ;  an  example  will  best  illustrate 
this  distinction. — Tacitus  introduces  Galgacus,  addressing  the  Caledonian  ar¬ 
my  as  follows.  “  When  I  contemplate  the  causes  of  the  war,  and  the  necessi¬ 
ty  to  which  we  are  reduced,  great  is  my  confidence  that  this  day,  and  this  union 
of  yours,  will  prove  the  beginning  of  universal  liberty  to  Britain.”  This  is  the 
direct  discourse.  If,  instead  of  introducing  Galgacus  himself  to  speakhis  own 
speech,  the  historian  had  only  told  us  what  he  said,  he  would  have  used  the 
oblique  or  indirect  style,  thus.  Galgacus  said,  “  that  when  he  contemplated 
the  causes  of  the  war,  and  the  necessity  to  which  they,  (the  Roman  army,) 
were  reduced,  his  confidence  was  great,  that  that  day  and  that  union  of  theirs 
would  prove  the  beginning  of  universal  liberty  to  Britain.” 

In  the  first  of  these,  or  the  direct  discourse,  it  will  be  observed  that  when  the 
speaker  refers  to  himself,  he  uses  the  first  person,  “I,”  “we.”  When  he  refers  to 
those  addressed,  he  uses  the  second  person,  “thou,”  “you,” — and  that  the 
eading  verbs  in  Latin  are  all  in  the  indicative  mood,  and  independent  of  any 
rrevious  word.  But  in  the  second  or  oblique  discourse,  the  third  person  only , 
s  used,  whether  the  speaker  is  said  to  refer  to  himself,  or  his  hearers,  or  a 
hird  person.  And  the  leading  verbs  in  Latin,  are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  in 
'he  subjunctive  with  ut,  and  in  either  case  dependent  on  the  verb  with  which 
die  account  is  introduced,  such  as,  “he  said,”  “stated,”  “replied,”  or  the 
like.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  while  in  both  forms,  the  same  idea  is  ex¬ 
pressed  in  nearly  the  same  language,  the  construction  of  the  sentence  in  each 
is  entirely  different;  thus,  in  direct  discourse  :  Antonius  inquit ,  “ Ars  earum 
return  est  quce  sciuntur.  Cm  Quinctilian  relates  the  same  thing  in  the  ob - 


252 


SYNTAX. 


MOODS. 


§  141 

lique  form;  thus,  u  Antonins  ait,  artem  carum  rerum  esse  qua  sciantur.  Her* 
the  leading  verb  in  the  direct  form,  is  est,  in  the  indicative  mood,  having  no 
dependence  on  any  previous  word,  and  having  its  subject  in  the  nominative  case. 
In  the  oblique  form,  the  same  verb  is  in  the  infinitive,  esse;  it  is  dependent  on 
ait,  and  has  its  subject  in  the  accusative.  In  the  first,  the  verb  in  the  subordi¬ 
nate  clause,  is  in  the  indicative,  Sciuntur ;  in  the  last,  it  is  in  the  subjunctive 
mood,  sciantur.  Hence,  the  following  general  principle. 

In  every  unmixed  example  of  oblique  narration ,  two 
moods  only  are  admissible,  the  infinitive  and  subjunctive ,  and 
consequently,  as  the  relative  is  never  employed  but  in  the 
secondary,  and  subordinate  members  of  a  sentence,  it  must 
always,  in  oblique  statements,  be  followed  by  the  subjunc¬ 
tive. 

Obs.  5.  In  connection  with  this  general  principle,  however,  two  things 
must  be  noticed. 

1st.  In  oblique  discourse,  the  narrator  frequently  introduces  a  re¬ 
mark  of  his  own,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  but  yet  so  closely 
interwoven  with  the  discourse  he  is  reporting,  as  to  seem  to  be  a  part 
of  it.  Such  remark  is  usually  introduced  with  the  relative,  and  the 
indicative,  and  may  be  detected  by  this  construction:  Thus,  Disseruit 
Casar,  11  non  quidem  sibi  ignarfi’  quae  de  Silano  vulgabantur,  il  Sed 
non  ex  rumore  siatuendum .”  Caesar  replied  that  those  things,  indeed, 
viz:  which  were  rumoured  concerning  Silanus,  were  not  unknown  to 
him,  Stc.Tac.  Here,  the  clause,  quae  de  Silano  vulgabantur ,  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  a  part  of  what  Caesar  said,  but  as  a  clause  thrown  in 
by  the  historian  to  inform  his  readers  what  things  they  were  which 
Caesar  meant.  But  if  the  verb  had  been  vulgarentur ,  it  would  have 
shewn  that  it  was  a  part  of  what  Caesar  said. 

2d.  In  animated  oblique  narration,  the  historian  sometimes  sudden¬ 
ly  passes  from  the  oblique  to  the  direct  discourse,  and  instead  of  re¬ 
porting  the  remarks  of  the  speaker,  introduces  him,  as  it  were,  to 
speak  for  himself.  This  is  always  manifest  by  the  transition,  from 
the  use  of  the  infinitive  and  subjunctive,  to  that  of  the  indicative, 
and  from  the  use  of  the  third  person  to  denote  the  speaker,  and  the 
person  addressed,  to  that  of  the  first  and  second.  The  following  is 
often  quoted  as  an  appropriate  example  of  this.  (Oblique)  “  Sa¬ 
bina  mulieres  dirimfire  infestas  acies,  hinc  patres,  bine  viros  orantesf 
ne  se  sanguine  nefando,  soceri ,  generique  respergerent;  ne  parricidio 
macular ent  partus  suos,  nepotum  illi,  liberum  hi  progeniem.  (Direct) 
Si  piget  afinitatis  inter  vos,  si  connubii  piget,  in  nos  vertite  iras ,  nos 
causa  belli ,  nos  vulnSrmn  ac  ccedium  viris  ac  parentibus  sumus,  melius 
peribimus ,  quam  sine  alteris  vestrum  vidua  aut  orba  vivemus.  Liv.  1. 13. 

Obs.  6.  A  verb  in  the  Future  perfect  indicative,  in  direct  discourse, 
will  always  take  the  pluperfect  subjunctive,  when  the  same  sentence 
is  thrown  into  the  oblique  form,  whatever  be  the  tense  of  the  intro¬ 
ductory  verb;  thus,  Dabitur  quodcunque  optaris.  Ov.;  in  the  direct 
discourse,  is  thus  related  by  Cicero,  in  the  oblique  form  :  SolPha- 
thonti  filio  f  acturum  esse  dixit  quidquid  optassel. 

Obs.  7.  To  this  construction  may  be  referred  the  subjunctive  con¬ 
nected  by  a  relative  or  casual  conjunction  with  the  preceding  verb  ir 


§  142-3 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


any  of  its  parts,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing,  not  what  the  writer  as¬ 
serts  himself,  but  what  is  alleged  by  others;  as,  Socrates  accusatus 
cst  quod  corrumperet  juventutem ,  “  Socrates  was  accused,  because  (as 
was  alleged,)  he  corrupted  the  youth.”  The  indicative  here  would 
assert  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  that  Socrates  did  corrupt  the  youth. 

Obs.  8.  When  an  infinitive  or  subjunctive  mood  lias  a 
c.lause  connected  with  it  by  a  relative  or  other  connecting 
word,  for  the  purpose  of  restricting  the  predicate,  otherwise 
indefinite,  the  verb  of  the  latter  clause  is  put  in  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  mood  ;  as, 

Quid  enim  potest  esse  tarn  perspicuum,  quam  esse  aliquod  numen  quo 
hcec  regantur.  u  For  what  can  be  so  clear,  as  that  there  is  some 
divinity  by  whom  these  things  are  governed?” 


$  142.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE. 

1.  The  Imperative  mood  is  used  to  command,  exhort,  &c.  §  42.  III. 
Its  subject,  with  which  it  agrees  by  Rule  IV.  is  the  person  or  persons 
addressed  in  the  command,  &c.,  and  hence,  it  is  properly  used  only 
in  the  second  person.  In  Latin,  as  well  as  in  Greek,  the  imperative 
mood  has  a  distinct  form  for  the  third  person;  it  is,  however,  but 
seldom  used,  and  chiefly  in  the  enacting  of  laws,  having  the  force  of 
a  command  on  those  for  whom  they  are  designed. 

2.  With  the  imperative,  not  is  expressed  by  ne ,  and  nor  by  neve ; 
as,  Ne  crede  colori.  Virg.  Hominem  mortuum  in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  ne¬ 
ve  urlto.  Cic. 

3.  Instead  of  the  simple  imperative,  sometimes  fac  or  cave ,  with 
the  subjunctive,  are  used,  and  noli  with  the  infinitive;  as,  Fac  venias, 
“  come;”  cave  existimes ,  do  not  think;”  Noli  timer e ,  “  do  not  fear.” 
For  other  tenses,  used  imperatively,  see  §  42.  Obs.  9. 


$  143.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

[For  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  mood,  in  connection  with  different 

tenses  of  the  verb,  see  §  47.] 

The  infinitive  mood,  in  Latin,  is  used  in  two  ways;  First, as  a  ver¬ 
bal  noun,  and  Second ,  as  a  verb.  As  a  verbal  noun ,  it  has  no  sub¬ 
ject;  as  a  verb,  it  always  has.  Without  a  subject  it  cannot  form  a 
proposition,  or  express  an  affirmation;  with  a  subject  it  always  does. 
In  the  first  case  it  comes  under  the  regimen  of  the  verb,  either  alone 
as  a  verbal  noun,  or  with  the  words  depending  upon  it,  as  a  substantive 
phrase  In  the  second  it  comes  under  its  regimen  only  in  connection 
with  its  subject,  as  a  distinct,  though  dependent  proposition  or  sub¬ 
stantive  clause.  Hence,  all  that  belongs  to  the  construction  of  this 
mood,  may  be  comprised  in  what  relates  to  the  use  of  it,  in  these  two 
way« 


22 


254 


S  Y  N T A  X. - M O  O  DS . 


§  144 


$  144.  I.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  A  SUBJECT. 


The  infinitive  without  a  subject,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
verbal  noun  in  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and  in 
form  indeclinable,  but  differing  from  all  other  nouns,  inas¬ 
much  as  it  involves  the  idea  of  time,  and  has  all  the  power 
of  governing  that  belongs  to  the  verb.  The  character  of  the 
infinitive  as  a  noun,  is  manifest  from  its  being  used  in  almost 
every  way  that  a  noun  is.  It  is  used, 

1.  As  the  nominative  to  a  verb;  as,  Utinarn  emori  fortunis  meis 
honestus  exitus  esset;  or  as  the  nominative  after  the  verb;  as ,Sive  iU 
lud  erat  sine  funtre  ferri. 

2.  As  a  case  in  apposition  to  a  preceding  nominative;  as,  Res  erat 
spectaculo  digna,  videre  Xerxem,  See.  It  was  a  thing  worthy  of  being 
seen,  to  see  Xerxes ,  &c. 

3.  It  is  used  as  a  genitive  after  substantives  and  adjectives;  as, 
Tempus  est  abire,  for  abeundi:  Soli  cantare  perlti  Arcades,  for  canton- 
di  or  cantus.  Rule  VII.  IX. 

4.  As  a  dative  after  adjectives,  &c;  thus,  Et  vos  servire  magis 
quam  imperii  re  parati  estis.  Rule  XVI. 

5.  As  an  accusative  after  an  active  verb;  as,  Da  mihi  fallere,  Hor. 
Terrain  cum.  primum  arant,  proscindere  appellant;  cum  itcrum ,  offrin- 
gcre  dicunt.  Varr. — After  a  preposition:  as,  Nihil  interest  inter  dare 
et  accipere.  Sen.  Prseter  plorare.  Hor.  Proeter  loqui.  Liv. 

6.  As  a  vocative;  as,  0  vivere  nostrum ,  for  0  vita  nostra. 

7.  As  an  ablative  in  various  constructions;  as,  dignus  amfiri;  as 
the  case  absolute;  thus,  Audlto  regem  in  Siciliam  tendere.  This  ex¬ 
ample,  however,  has  a  subject  regem,  Rule  XXIII. 

8.  It  has  an  adjective  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it ;  as,  Scire  tuum 
nihil  est  ;  Ipsum  dicere  nunquam  non  ineptum  est,  &c.  Cic.  In  this 
way  we  may  account  for  the  poetic  u  dulce  loqui,”  “  rider e  deco¬ 
rum.,”  &c. 

9.  It  governs  the  genitive  like  a  noun  ;  as,  cujus  non  dimicare  fuit 
vincere. 

It  is  however,  chiefly  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb  that 
it  is  thus  used.  Hence  the  following  rules. 


Rule  LVI.  One  verb  being  the  subject  of  ano¬ 
ther,  is  put  in  the  infinitive ;  as, 


To  complain  is  easy. 
To  lie  is  base. 


Facile  est  queri , 
Mentiri  turpe  est , 


EXPLANATION. — In  the  first  example  the  subject  or  thing  spoken  of  is  ex¬ 
pressed  by  the  infinitive  queri,  which  is  therefore  the  nominative  to  the  verb  est. 
A  noun  used  instead  of  queri  would  have  to  be  in  the  nominative  case.  In  such 
•entences  it  is  manifestly  improper  to  say  that  est  governs  queri ,  just  as  it  would 
be  improper  to  say  the  verb  governs  its  nominative.  This  rule  applies  also  to 
the  infinitive  with  a  subject 


§144 


SYNTAX.— MOODS. 


255 


Obs.  1 .  A  proper  attention  to  this  rule  will  show  that  many  verbs 
considered  impersonal  ,  or  thought  to  be  used  impersonally 'are  not 
really  so,  hut  have  an  infinitive  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence  for  their 
subject  or  nominative  ;  thus,  Nec  profuit  Hydra  cresdre  per  damnum , 

Nor  did  it  profit  the  Hydra  to  grow  by  his  wounds.”  Ovid.  Here, 
instead  of  saying  that  profuit  is  used  impersonally,  and  governs  cres- 
dre  in  the  infinitive  ;  the  true  construction  is  that  profuit  is  used  per¬ 
sonally,  and  has  cresdre  for  its  nominative.  So  the  following,  Cadit 
in  eundem  misereri  et  invidere  .  Cic.  Vacare  culpa  magnum  est  sola¬ 
tium ;  Neque  est  tefallere  quidquam ,  &tc.  §  101.  Obs.  3. 

Rule  LVII.  One  verb  governs  another,  as  its 
object,  in  the  infinitive ;  as, 

Cupio  discere.  I  desire  to  learn. 

EXPLANATION.— The  infinitive  mood  under  this  rule  is  equivalent  to  a  noun 
in  the  case  which  the  preceding  verb  usually  governs  :  Thus,  in  the  exam¬ 
ple  Cupio  is  an  active  verb  and  governs  discere ,  as  if  it  were  a  noun  in  the  ac¬ 
cusative.  The  meaning  is  that  a  verb,  used  as  the  object  of  another  without  a 
conjunction  or  connective  word,  must  be  put  in  the  infinitive.  This  Rule  also 
applies  to  the  infinitive  with  a  subject. 

Note. — In  all  cases  under  this  rule,  of  the  infinitive  without  a  subject,  the  in¬ 
finitive  expresses  an  act,  or  state,  of  the  subject  of  the  preceding  verb. 

Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  without  a  subject  is  used  only  after  certain 
verbs,  especially  such  as  denote  desire ,  ability ,  intention ,  or  endeavor , 
such  as,  cupio ,  opto,  volo,  nolo,  malo ■ — possum ,  queo,  nequeo,  valeo, 
cogito,  conor,  tendo.  disco,  doceo ,  debeo,  &c.  By  the  poets  it  is  used 
after  fuge,  parce  for  noli,  and  sometimes  after  caveo,  fugio,  gaudeo, 
&c.  In  a  few  instances  it  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion,  to  denote  a 
purpose  ;  as,  introit  videre,  11  He  came  to  see.”  Ter.  Iniit  consilia 
tollere  reges,  11  He  devised  a  plan  to  destroy  the  kings.” 

Obs.  3.  In  many  cases  the  infinitive  after  such  verbs  may  be 
changed  for  the  infinitive  with  a  subject ;  as,  cupio  me  esse  dementem. 
Cic.  for  me  clemens  or  clementem.  §  103-  Obs.  6.  Or  for  the  sub¬ 
junctive  with  ut;  as,  sententiam  ne  diceret  recusavit ,  for  sententiam 
dicere. 

Obs.  4.  The  infinitive  without  a  subject  is  also  used  after  adjec¬ 
tives  and  nouns.  So  used,  it  is  equivalent  to  a  noun  in  the  case 
governed  by  such  adjective  or  noun.  See  examples,  §  144.  No. 
3.  4.  6. 

Obs.  5.  Sometimes  the  infinitive  is  understood  ;  as,  Ei  provinciam 
Numidiam  populus  jussit ;  sc.  dari. 

The  Historical  Infinitive . 

Obs.  6.  The  verb  governing  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted; 
especially  is  this  the  case  in  historical  narration  when  the  infinitive 
iollows  a  nominative  case  in  the  sense  of  the  Imperfect  indicative,  or 
the  Perfect  indefinite  ;  as,  Invidere  omnes  mihi,  “  All  envied  me.” 
Ter.  At  Romani  domi  militiceque  intenti,  festinare,  parare,  alius  alium 
hortari.  Sail.  When  thus  used  it  is  supposed  to  be  governed  by 
ccepit  or  cceperunt  understood.  Cases  occur,  however,  in  which 
this  supplement  cannot  be  made;  as,  Verum  ingenium e jus  hand  ab* 
surdum;  posse  facZre  versus,  jocum  mover e,  &. c.  Sail 


MOODS. 


256 


SYNTAX. - 


§  145 


<>  145.  II.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITH  A  SUBJECT. 

j.  The  infinitive  with  a  subject  possesses  the  character  of  the  verb 
and  affirms  of  its  subject  as  in  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  moods  ; 
but  only  in  subordinate  and  dependent  propositions.  These  proposi¬ 
tions  themselves  have  a  substantive  character,  and  generally  stand  in 
the  relation  of  substantives  to  the  verb  on  which  they  depend  ;  some¬ 
times  as  a  nominative,  but  generally  as  an  accusative  or  the  ab¬ 
lative  of  manner  or  cause.  Thus  used,  they  may  be  called  substantive 
clauses — and  as  such  they  fall  under  the  two  preceding  rules.  Thus, 

1st.  As  the  nominative  according  to  Rule  LVI.  Tenonistud  au- 
divisse  mirum  est,  “ That  you  have  not  heard  that  is  wonderful.”  Here 
Te  non  istud  audivisse  stands  as  the  nominative  to  est. 

2d.  As  the  object  or  accusative  after  the  verb,  according  to  Rule 
LVIL  Miror  te  non  scribere,  “  I  wonder  that  you  do  not  write.” 
Here,  te  non  scrib&re  stands  as  the  object  of  miror  which  governs  it  as 
an  accusative  by  Rule  XX.  See  Exp.  2. 

Rule  LVIII.  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  put 
in  the  accusative;  as, 

Gaudeo  te  valere,  I  am  glad  that  you  are  well. 

EXPLANATION. — The  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of  in  the  dependent  clause  and  may  be,  as  in  Rule  IV.  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  Sc c. 
and  is  always  to  be  in  the  accusative  case  ;  except  as  in  §  144.  Obs.  6.  Under  this 
rule  the  infinitive  with  its  subject  forms  a  distinct  proposition  and  is  equiva¬ 
lent  to  the  indicative,  or  subjunctive  mood  in  English  together  with  the  connec¬ 
tive  “  that.”  Thus  in  the  example,  te  valere  contains  the  simple  proposition 
11  You  are  well.”  The  equivalent  of  the  English  11  that,”  connecting  it  as  a 
subordinate  clause  with  the  preceding  verb  is  implied  in  the  infinitive  form.  If 
the  infinitive  stand  after  an  accusative  which  does  not  form  with  it  a  distinct 
proposition,  i.  e.  which  is  not  its  subject,  it  does  not  belong  to  this  rule,  but 
the  accusative  is  governed  by  Rule  XX.;  as,  Proteus  peeus  egit  altos  visere 
montes.  Hence, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  The  English  particle  u  that ,”  maybe  called  the  sign  of  the 
accusative  before  the  infinitive,  being  used  to  connect  the  infinitive 
clause  with  the  preceding.  It  may  often  be  omitted,  however,  in 
translating,  as  it  frequently  is  in  English  ;  thus,  Aiunt  regem  adven- 
tare ,  “  They  say  the  king  is  coming,”  or,  “  that  the  king  is  coming.” 

Obs.  2.  The  accusative  in  Latin,  is  translated  by  the  nominative 
in  English.  Hence,  the  accusative  of  the  relative  pronoun,  referring 
to  persons  must  be  rendered  who ,  not  whom  ;  as,  Quern  confecium 
vulneribus  diximus ,  u  Who ,  we  said,  was  exhausted  with  his  wounds.” 

Obs.  X.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same  with  the 
subject  of  the  preceding  verb,  it  is  seldom  expressed,  unless  required 
to  be  emphatic  ;  as,  Pollicitus  sum  scripturum  ^esse)  sc.  me,  11 1 
promised  that  I  would  write.”  After  verbs  signifying  to  be  accustom¬ 
ed,  to  dare,  I  can,  1  ought,  the  infinitives  esse,  judicari,  videri,  &c. 
having  the  same  subject  with  the  preceding  verb,  have  an  adjective 


§145 


■SYNTAX.— —MOODS. 


257 


or  noun  after  them  in  the  nominative  case,  indicating  that  the  subject 
of  the  infinitive  understood  is  regarded  as  a  nominative  according  to 
the  Greek  construction.  Gr.  Gr.  §  175.  Exc.  Thus,  solet  tristis 
videri ;  aude  sapiens  esse ;  debes  esse  diligens.  See  also,  §  103.  Obs 
5-8.  and  150.  3.  3d. 

Obs.  4.  When  the  preceding  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice,  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the  infinitive  may  be  changed  into  the  subject  of  that  verb, 
or  remain  unchanged  in  the  accusative,  the  passive  verb  being  used 
impersonally,  or  rather  having  the  infinitive  clause  for  its  subject ; 
thus,  Matrem  Pausanice  eo  tempore  vixisse  dicitur,  or,  Mater  Pausa- 
nice  eo  tempore  vixisse  dicitur ,  It  is  said  that  the  mother  of  Pausanias 
was  living  at  that  time,  or,  the  mother  of  Pausanias  is  said  to  have 
been  living,  &c. 

Obs.  5.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  in  a  subordinate  clause 
is  equivalent  to  the  subjunctive  with  ut,  quod,  he.  “  that,”  preceding; 
as,  Gaud&o  te  valere,  or  Gaudgo  quodx aleas.  Hence,  the  one  ex¬ 
pression  may  often  be  changed  for  the  other.  Usage,  however,  has 
given  a  preference  to  the  one  form  in  some  cases,  and  to  the  other  in 
others ;  as, 

1st.  When  the  dependent  clause  expresses  purpose  or  design ,  or 
when  “  that”  is  equivalent  to  11  in  order  that,  so  that,ut  with  the 
subjunctive  is  used.  §  140.  1.  2d. 

2d.  Aftei  verbs  of  endeavoring,  aiming ,  accomplishing ,  such  as  facto , 
efficio,  perficio,  &c.  the  subjunctive  with  ut  is  used. 

3d.  Verbs  signifying  to  request ,  demand ,  admonish ,  advise,  commis¬ 
sion,  encourage ,  command ,  and  the  like  usually  take  the  subjunctive. 

4th.  Ut  with  the  subjunctive  follows  verbs  signifying  to  happen ,  to 
occur,  &c.  as,  fit,  incidit.  occurrit,  contingit  ;  est.  restat.  super- 
est,  &c. 

5th.  Verbs  signifying  willingness ,  unwillingness ,  permission,  neces¬ 
sity ,  &e.  commonly  take  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive.  Also 
generally  verbs  denoting  seeing,  hearing,  knowing ,  feeling ,  thinking, 
saying,  &c.,  but  sometimes  they  take  the  subjunctive. 

Obs.  6.  After  such  verbs  as  existimo ,  puto,  spero,  ajfirmo,  suspicor , 
&c.  the  place  of  the  future  infinitive  is  elegantly  supplied  by  fore,  or 
futurum  esse ,  followed  by  ut  with  the  subjunctive  ;  as.  Nunquam  pu- 
tavi  fore  ut  supplex  ad  te  venlrem,  for  (me)  venturum  esse. 

This  construction  is  necessary  when  the  verb  has  no  supine  and 
consequently  no  future  infinitive  active.  See  §  47.  9.  Fore  is  some¬ 
times  used  with  the  perfect  participle  passive  to  denote  a  future  ac¬ 
tion  in  the  passive  voice  ;  as,  Quod  videret  nomine  vacis  bellum  invo- 
lutum  fore. 

Obs.  7.  The  verb  on  which  the  infinitive  depends  is  sometimes 
omitted  especially  in  interrogations,  or  exclamations,  expressive  of  in¬ 
dignation  ;  ns,  Mene  incept o  desistere  nec  posse,  &c.  Virg.  In  such 
cases,  some  such  expression  as  credibile  est  is  understood. 


22* 


258 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


§  146 

?  146.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  PARTICIPLES 

£For  the  lenses  and  use  of  the  participles  in  certain  connexions 

see  §  49.] 

Rule  LIX.  Participles,  like  adjectives,  agree 
with  their  substantives  in  gender,  number,  and 
case ;  as, 

Homo  carens  fraude,  A  man  wanting  guile. 

Pax  tantum  amata.  Peace  so  greatly  loved. 

Rem.  Participles  together  with  gerunds  and  supines  being  parts  of  the  verb, 
govern  the  case  of  their  own  verb.  So  that  no  separate  rule  for  the  govern* 
ment  of  cases  by  these  is  at  all  necessary. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs.  1.  The  verbs  do,  reddo,  volo,  euro,  facto,  habPo,  comperto,  with 
the  perfect  participle  form  a  periphrasis  similar  to  the  compound 
tenses  in  English  and  other  modern  languages  thus,  Habeo  comper- 
turn,  for  comptri,  “ 1  have  found  ;”  Missam  iram  faciet  for  tram  mit - 
tet,  &c. 

Obs.  2.  The  perfect  passive  participle  is  often  used  to  supply  the 
place  of  a  verbal  noun,  when  such  a  noun  is  wanting,  or  but  seldom 
used;  as,  Hce  litterse  recitat®  magnum  luctum  fectrunt,  “The  read¬ 
ing  of  Phis  letter,  (not  “  this  letter  being  read”)  caused  great  mourn¬ 
ing.”  ^So,  Captum  T arentum,  “  The  taking  of  Tarentum;”  receptus 
Hannibal,  “the  reception  of  Hannibal.”  Ab  urbe  condita,  “from 
the  building  of  the  city,”  &c. 

Obs.  3.  The  future  active  participle  is  frequently  used  to  denote 
the  purpose  or  design  of  an  action,  and  is  in  such  case  rendered  to, 
in  order  to;  as,  Ad  Jovem  Hammonem  pergit  consulturus  de  origine 
sua,  “  He  goes  to  Jupiter  Ammon  to  (or  in  order  to)  consult  him 
about  his  origin.”  So  also  the  present;  as,  petens  veniarn  venit. 

Obs.  4.  The  future  participle  in  -dus,  also  denotes  a  purpose,  when 
joined  with  verbs  signifying  to  give,  to  deliver,  to  agree  for,  to  have, 
to  receive,  to  undertake,  &c.  as,  Testamentum  tibi  tradit  legendum. 
He  delivers  his  will  to  you  to  be  read;  So,  His  aera  dedit  habendum. 

Obs.  5.  The  participle  in  -dus,  generally  implies  the  idea  of  pro¬ 
priety,  necessity,  or  obligation.  This  is  almost  always  the  case  when 
it  agrees  with  the  subject  of  a  sentence;  as,  Delenda  est  Carthago, 
Carthage  must  be  destroyed.  Sometimes,  also,  when  it  agrees  with 
words  not  in  the  subject;  as,  Facta  narrabas  dissimulanda  tibi,  “  You 
were  relating  things  which  ought  to  have  been  concealed  by  you.” 
The  doer  in  such  constructions,  when  expressed,  must  be  in  the  dative. 
§  126.  Obs.  3. 

Note. — In  most  other  cases,  the  participle  in  dus,  is  used  as  a  present  parti¬ 
ciple  passive,  §  49.  Note  3. 

Obs.  6.  Participles  are  often  used  in  Latin,  instead  of  a  verb,  and 
particle  in  explanatory  and  adversative  clauses,  to  mark  a  variety  of 
accompanying  circumstances,  and  relations  belonging  to  some  noun  in 
the  leading  proposition  of  the  sentence;  as,  Curio  ad  focum  sedenti 


SYNTAX. - MOODS. 


$  146 


259 


magnum,  auri  pondus  Samnites  aitulcrunt .  To  Curias  as  he  was  sit¬ 
ting  by  the  fire,  & c.  'Dionysius  Syracusis  expulsus  Corinthi  pueros  do- 
cebat,  .Dionysius  when  he  was  expelled  from  Syracuse.  &c. 

Sometimes,  as  in  Greek,  it  is  used  to  connect  an  accompanying 
with  the  main  action,  in  the  same  subject  as  the  cause,  manner,  or 
means  of  effecting  it;  as,  Hoc  faciens  vivam  melius ,  By  doing  this  I 
will  live  better.  Hor.  So  used,  it  is  equivalent  to  the  ablative  Gerund  . 

Obs.  7.  When  a  participle  does  not  refer  to  some  leading  subject  in 
the  proposition,  but  to  a  new  subject  introduced,  not  depending  on 
any  word  in  the  sentence,  the  participle  is  put  with  that  new  subject, 
in  what  is  called, 


THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

Rule  LX.  A  substantive  with  a  participle, 
whose  case  depends  on  no  other  word,  is  put  in  the 
ablative  absolute ;  as, 


Sole  oriente  fugiunt  Tenebrce , 


The  sun  rising,  or  while  the 
sun  rises,  darkness  Hies  away. 


EXPLANATION. — This  rule  properly  belongs  to  the  substantive  only,  with 
which  the  participle  then  agrees  by  the  preceding  rule. 


Obs.  8.  This  construction  is  much  more  frequent  in  Latin  than  in 
other  languages,  partly  because  there  is  no  perfect  participle  jjp  the 
active  voice.  When,  therefore,  in  connection  with  an  active  verb,  a 
past  act  of  its  subject  is  to  be  expressed  by  the  participle,  the  per¬ 
fect*  participle  passive  must  be  used,  and  hence,  the  object  of  the  act 
must  be  introduced  as  a  new  subject,  which,  having  no  dependence 
on  any  word  in  the  sentence,  must  under  the  rule,  he  put  in  the  abla¬ 
tive  absolute.  Thus,  in  English  we  say.  Caesar  having  sent  forward 
the  Cavalry,  followed  with  all  his  forces.  There  being  no  perfect 
participle  in  Latin  corresponding  to  “  having  sent,”  which  would 
agree  with  Ccesar  in  the  nominative  case,  this  clause  must  be  chang¬ 
ed  into  the  passive  form;  thus,  Ccesar,  equitatu  preemisso,  subscque- 
bdtur,  &c.  literally,  Caesar,  the  cavalry  being  sent  before,  follow¬ 
ed,  &c. 

As  the  perfect  participle  of  deponent  verbs  has  an  active  significa¬ 
tion,  it  is  not  necessary  to  resort  to  such  a  change  in  the  use  of  them. 
Thus,  Caesar  hcec  locutus  concilium  dimisit,  11  Ccesar  having  said 
these  things,  dismissed  the  council.”  With  the  participle  of  a  verb, 
not  deponent,  the  passive  form  and  the  ablative  would  be  used  thus; 
Ccesar  his  dictis  concilium  dimisit,  &c.  “  Caesar,  these  things  being 
said,  dismissed  the  council.” — The  first  of  these  expressions,  besides 
being  more  direct,  is  also  much  more  definite,  for  here,  there  is  no 
doubt  as  to  who  said  the  things  referred  to.  but  in  the  second  it  is 
left  in  doubt,  whether  the  things  referred  to  were  spoken  by  Ccesar 
or  by  some  other.  This  doubt  can  be  removed  only  by  the  context,  or 
by  express  mention  of  the  doer,  which  is  not  often  done.  In  the  fol¬ 
lowing  sentence  the  two  forms  are  combined.  Ccesar  omnium  remo- 
tis  equis,  cohortatus  suos  prcelium  commisit. — So,  Agros  Re?norum 
depopulate,  omnibus  vicis  aedificiisque  incensis.  Cses. 


260 


SYNTAX.- 


GERUNDS. 


§147 


Note. — A  few  instances  occur  in  which  this  construction  is  used  when  there 
is  no  change  of  subject,  and  where  a  different  case  would  have  expressed  the 
same  thing  ;  thus,  Legio  ex  caslris  Varronis,  adstante  et  inspectante  ipso,  for 
idstantis  et  adspectantis  ipsms. 

Obs.  9.  The  ablative  absolute  in  the  case  of  deponent,  as  well  as 
}f  other  verbs,  is  used  to  indicate  the  order  and  connection  of  events 
narrated,  as  in  the  above  examples,-  or  to  mark  the  time  of  an  action  by 
reference  to  that  of  another  action;  as,  Pythagoras  Tarquinio  Superbo 
regnante,  in  Italiam  venit,  Pythagoras  came  into  Italy  in  the  reign  of 
Tar  quin  the  Proud.  In  all  such  cases,  it  is  equivalent  to  the  subjunc¬ 
tive  with  a  connective  word.  Thus,  his  dictis  in  the  former  example, 
is  equivalent  to  quum  hcec  dixisset — Tarquinio  superbo  regnante ,  to 
quum  Tarquinius  Super  bus  regnaret;  and  so  of  others. 

Obs.  10.  The  verb  sum  having  no  present  participle,  two  nouns,  or 
a  noun  and  adjective,  are  used  in  the  case  absolute  without  a  partici¬ 
ple,  which  is  supplied  in  English  by  the  word  being;  thus,  se  duce, 
“  he  being  leader:”  se  consule ,  11  he  being  consul,”  or,  u  in  his  con¬ 
sulship;”  So,  C  Duillio  et  Cn.  Cornelio  Asind  consulibus. 

Obs.  11.  Some  word,  phrase,  or  clause  of  a  sentence,  sometimes 
supplies  the  place  of  the  substantive,  and  has  a  participle  with  it.  in 
the  ablative;  as,  Nondum  comperto,  quamregionem  hostes  petissenl; 
Audito  Barium  appropinquare;  Vale  dicto,  Sec. 

Obs.  12.  Sometimes  the  noun  is  understood  as,  Parto  quod  avebas. 
Sometimes  a  plural  substantive  is  joined  with  a  singular  participle; 
as,  Nobis  prcesenlc.  For  the  construction  of  Gerundives,  see  next 
section. 


§  147.  GERUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES. 

The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun  in  the  singular  number,  governed  in 
its  cases  as  other  nouns,  and  having  the  same  power  of  Government 
as  the  verb.  As,  therefore,  the  rules  which  apply  to  the  government 
of  nouns  and  verbs,  apply  to  the  gerund,  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat 
them  here.  All  that  is  peculiar  to  the  construction  of  the  gerund,  is 
comprised  in  the  following  Rules  and  Observations. 

Rule  LXI. — The  verb  Est,  with  the  gerund 
for  its  subject,  implies  necessity,  and  governs 
the  dative  of  the  doer;  as, 

Nora.  Legendum  est  mihi,  Reading  is  to  me,  i.  e.  I  must  read. 

Nom.  Moriendum  est  omnibus,  Dying  is  to  all,  i.  e.  All  must  die. 

Acc.  Scio  moriendum  esse  mihi,,  I  know  that  dying  is  to  me,  i.  e, 

that  I  must  die. * 

EXPLANATION.  The  dative  here  is  governed  by  Est,  according  to  §112  R. 
II.  In  the  first  and  second  examples  the  gerund  in  the  nominative  is  the  subject 

*  Some  Grammarians,  who  regard  the  gerund  as  a  verbal  noun,  speak  of  it  as 
such  only  in  the  oblique  cases.  They  think  that  the  nominative  of  the  verbal 
is  supplied  by  the  infinitive  mood,  and  that  what  is  called  the  nominative  of  the 
gerund,  is  really  the  neuter  of  the.  participle  in  dus,  in  a  passive  sense,  joined 


§14? 


SYNTAX. — GERUNDS,  ETC 


261 


of  est,  which  agrees  with  it  by  R.  IV.  In  the  third  example  the  gerund  is  in  the 
accusative,  and  the  subject  of  esse ,  by  R.  LVIII.  The  necessity  implied  in  this  con¬ 
struction  is  stronger  than  that  expressed  by  the  participle  in  dus,  the  latter  implying 
only  that  a  thing  is  to  be  done,  or  should  be  done, — the  former  that  it  must  be  done- — 
See  §79,  9. 

Obs.  1.  The  dative  of  the  doer  in  this  construction  is  often  under¬ 
stood  ;  as,  Orandum  est  (tibi)  ut  sit  sana  mens  in  corpore  sano. 

Obs.  2.  The  gerund  in  di ,  of  the  genitive  case,  is  govern¬ 
ed  by  substantives  or  adjectives;  as, 

Tempus  legendi,  Time  of  reading,  §  106.  Rule  YI. 

Cupidus  discendi,  Desirous  of  learning,  §  107.  Rule  IX. 

Obs.  3.  The  gerund  in  do,  of  the  dative  case,  is  governed 
by  adjectives  signifying  usefulness  or  fitness;  as, 

7 harta  utilis  scribendo,  Paper  useful  for  writing,  §  111.  Rule  XVI. 

Sometimes  it  is  governed  by  verbs;  as,  Adesse  scribendo.  Cic.  Ap - 
at  habendo  ensem.  Virg.  Is  finis  censendo  f  actus  est. 

Obs.  4.  The  gerund  in  dum ,  of  the  accusative  case,  when 
lot  the  subject  of  the  infinitive,  is  governed  by  the  preposi- 
ions,  ad ,  inter ,  &c.;  as, 

Inter  docendum,  In  time  of  teaching. 

Obs.  5.  The  gerund  in  do,  of  the  ablative  case,  is  govern¬ 
'd  by  the  prepositions  a,  ab,  de,  e,  ex,  or  in;  as, 

*cena  a  peccando  absterret,  Punishment  frightens  from  sinning. 

Or  without  a  preposition,  as  the  ablative  of  manner,  or 
cause  ;  as, 

' lemoria  excolendo  augetur,  The  memory  is  improved  by  exercising  it. 
'lefessus  sum  ambulando ,  I  am  wearied  with  walking. 

Obs.  6.  The  gerund  as  a  verbal  noun,  resembles  the  infinitive,  and 
s  often  put  for  it;  as,  Est  tempus  legendi  or  leg  ere.  The  gerund,  how- 
*ver,  is  never  joined  with  an  adjective,  and  is  sometimes  taken  in  a 
passive  sense;  as,  Cum  Tisidium  vocaretur  ad  imperandum,  to  receive  , 
orders.  Urit  videndo,  i.  e.  dum  vidttur,  by  being  seen. 


vitli  the  verb  est ,  used  impersonally.  Thus  Studendum  est  mihi,  they  think 
hould  be  literally  rendered  u  It  is  to  be  studied  by  me.”  Though  this  solutionis 
lausible,  and  would  seem  to  answer  in  many  cases,  there  are  others,  in 
‘hich  we,  at  least,  cannot  see  how  it  could  be  applied.  It  cannot  be  applied 
nless  the  participle  in  dus  in  oil  cases  has,  or  may  have  a  passive  sense  ;  but 
~  this  there  is  no  evidence,  and  facts  arc  opposed  to  it.  Thus,  it  will  hardly 
*  admitted  as  a  literal  rendering  of moriendum  est  omnibus,  to  say  it  is  to  be 
ed  by  all,”  and  it  certainly  cannot  be  so  used  in  those  examples  in  which  it 
»vorns  the  same  case  that  it  does  in  its  active  sense ;  thus,  Utrum  pace  nobis 
i  hello  csset  vtendum.  Cic.  Quu-tn  .-no  rvitjue.  jud  eio,  utendum  sit  Indeed,  the 
H  that  gerunds,  in  all  cases,  do  govern  the  ease  of  their  own  verb,  seems  to 
opposed  to  their  being  considered  as  parts  of  the  passive  participle  in  dus 


262 


SYNTAX. - GERUNDS,  ETC. 


§  147 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  GERUNDIVES. 

Rule  LXII.  Gerunds  governing  the  accusative, 
are  elegantly  turned  into  gerundives  in  dus,  which 
with  the  sense  of  the  gerund,  instead  of  govern¬ 
ing,  agree  with  their  substantive  in  gender,  num¬ 
ber,  and  case ;  as, 


Gerund, 

Gerundive, 

Gerund, 

Gerundive, 

Gerund, 

Gerundive, 


Time  of  seeking  peace. 


Tempus  petendi  pacein, 

Tempus  petendce  pads , 

Ad  petendum  pacem,  )  ^  ,  . 

Ad  petendam  pacem ,  )  s  v 

A  petendo  pacem, 

A  petenda  pace , 


From  seeking 


peace. 


EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  only  to  the  oblique  cases.  In  the  first 
of  the  above  examples,  the  Gerund  petendi  is  governed  in  the  genitive  by  tem¬ 
pus  according  to  Rule  VI.  and  then  governs  pacem  in  the  accusative  by  Rule 
XX.  In  the  gerundive  form,  the  genitive  pads  is  governed  by  tempus,  by  Rule 
VI.  and  the  gerundive  pet  endce  agrees  with  it  by  Rule  II.  In  the  gerund  form  the 
gerund  is  governed,  and  then  governs  the  noun.  In  the  gerundive  form,  the 
noun  is  governed,  and  then  the  gerundive  agrees  with  it  by  R.  II.  In  order  to 
change  from  the  gerund  to  the  gerundive,  it  is  necessary  only  to  change  the 
accusative  of  the  noun,  into  the  case  of  the  gerund,  and  then  make  the 
gerundive  agree  with  it ;  and  from  the  gerundive  to  the  gerund,  change  the 
noun  into  the  accusative  and  the  gerundive  into  the  gerund,  in  the  same  case 
as  before. 


The  following  are  examples  to  be  changed, 

Gen.  Consilia  urbis  dclendce,  civiam  trucidanddrum,  nominis  Romani 
extinguendi. 

Dat.  Perpetiendo  labori  idoneus ; — Capessendce  reipublicce  habilis ; — 
Natus  miserias  ferendo  ; — ad  miserias  ferendas ; — oneri  fer - 
endo  aptus. 

Acc.  and  Ab.  Ad  defendendam  Romam  ;  Ab  oppugnando  Capuam  ; 
ad  collocandum  signa  ;  In  diripiendis  castris. 

Obs.  7.  Instead  of  the  gerundive  in  the  genitive  plural,  to  agree 
with  a  noun  in  that  case,  the  gerund  in  the  genitive  singular  is  often 
*  retained,  probably  for  the  sake  of  Euphony  ;  as,  Fuit  exemplorum 
ehgevdi  potestas.  Cic.  Facultas  agrorum  condonandi ,  instead  of  eli - 
gendbrum  condonandbrum .  Also,  sometimes  when  the  noun  is  singu¬ 
lar  and  feminine;  as,  ejus  (sc.  fern.)  videndi  cupidus.  Ter. 

Obs.  8.  The  gerunds  of  verbs,  which  do  not  govern  the  accusative 
are  never  changed  into  the  gerundive,  except  those  of  medeor,  utor 
abutor ,  fruor ,  fungor ,  and  potior  ;  as,  Spes  potiundi  urbe ,  or  potiundee 
urbis,  but  we  always  say  Cupidus  subveniendi  tibi ,  and  never  tui 


SYNTAX. - SUPINES. 


263 


§  148 


$  148.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SUPINES. 

1.  The  Supine  in  -um. 

Rule  LXIII.  The  supine  in  um  is  put  after  a 
verb  of  motion;  as, 


Abiit  deambulatum,  He  hath  gone  to  walk 

So  DucZre  cohortes  prcedatum.  Liv.  Nunc  venis  irrisum  domlnum  ? 
Quod  in  rem  tuam  optimum  factu  arbitror  te  id  admonitum  venio. 
Plant. 

Obs.  1.  The  supine  in  um  is  elegantly  joined  with  the  verb  eo,  to 
express  the  signification  of  any  verb  more  strongly  ;  as,  It  se  perditum, 
the  same  with  id  agit ,  or  optram  dot ,  ut  se  perdat.  He  is  bent  on  his 
own  destruction.  Ter.  This  supine  with  iri,  taken  impersonally  sup¬ 
plies  the  place  of  the  future  infinitive  passive  ;  as,  An  credtbas  il- 
lam  sine  tua  opera  iri  deductum  domum  ?  Which  may  be  thus  resolved  ; 
An  credebas  iri  (  a  te,  or  ab  allquo)  deductum  (i.  e.  ad  deducendum) 
ill  am  domum.  Ter.  The  supine  here  may  be  considered  as  a  verbal 
substantive  governing  the  accusative,  like  the  gerund. 

Obs.  2.  The  supine  in  um  is  put  after  other  verbs  besides  verbs  of 
motion;  as,  Dedit  filiam  nuptum ;  Cantdtum  provocemus.  Ter.  Re - 
vocatus  defensum  patriam  :  Divisit  copias  hiematum.  Nep. 

Obs.  3.  The  meaning  of  this  supine  may  be  expressed  by  several 
other  parts  of  the  verb;  as,  Venit  oratum  opem:  or  1.  Venit  opem 
orandi  causa ,  or  opis  orandce.  2.  Venit  ad  orandum  opem,  or  ad  oran - 
dam  opem. 

2.  The  Supine  in  -u. 


Rule  LXIV.  The  supine  in  u  is  put  after  an 
adjective  noun ;  as, 

Facile  dictu,  Easy  to  tell,  or  to  be  told. 

So,  Nihil  dictu  fcedum,  visuque,  hcec  limina  tangat ,  Ultra  quce  puer 
est.  Juv.  Dfficilis  res  est  inventu  verus  amicus  ;  Fas  est ,  or  nefas  est 
dictu ;  Opus  est  scitu.  Cic. 

Obs.  4.  The  supine  in  u,  being  used  in  a  passive  sense,  hardly  ever 
governs  any  case.  It  is  sometimes,  especially  in  old  writers,  put  af¬ 
ter  verbs  of  motion  ;  as,  Nunc  obsondtu  redeo,  from  getting  provisions. 
Plaut.  Primus  cubitu  surgat  (villlcus,)  postremus  cubitum  eat.  “Let 
the  overseer  be  the  first  to  rise,  and  the  last  to  go  to  bed.,v  Cato. 

Obs.  5.  This  supine  may  be  rendered  by  the  infinitive  or  gerund 
with  the  preposition  ad;  as,  Difficile  cognitu ,  cognosci ,  orcti  cognos - 
cendum  ;  Res  facilis  ad  credendum.  Cic. 

Obs.  6.  The  supines  being  nothing  else  but  verbal  nouns  of  the 
fourth  declension,  used  onl)’'  in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular, 
are  governed  in  these  cases  by  prepositions  understood  ;  the  supine 
in  um  by  the  preposition  ad,  and  the  supine  in  u  by  the  preposition  in 


264 


SYNTAX. - CONJUNCTIONS. 


§  149 

*  149.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule  LXV.  The  conjunctions  et,  ac,  atque,  nec, 
neque,  aut ,  vel,  and  some  others,  couple  similar  cases 
and  moods ;  as, 

Honora  patron  et  matrem ,  Honor  father  and  mother. 

Nec  legit  nec  scribit,  He  neither  reads  nor  writes. 

EXPLANATION. — Words  coupled  by  a  conjunction  under  this  rule  are  in  the 
same  construction,  i.  e.  two  nominatives  coupled  together  are  the  subject  of 
the  same  verb,  or  predicates  of  the  same  subject;  and  nouns  coupled  together 
in  the  oblique  cases  are  governed  by  the  same  word,  as  in  the  first  example* 
Verbs  thus  coupled  have  the  same  subject  or  nominative,  as  in  the  second  ex 
ample. 

Obs.  1.  The  copulative  conjunctions  under  this  rule  are  such  as  et, 
ac,  atque,  etiam,  que;  the  disjunctives  nec,  neque ,  aut,  vel ,  seu,  site, 
ve,  neve,  neu;  also  quam,  prceterquam ,  nisi,  an,  nempe,  quamvis.nec - 
dum,  sed,  autem,  verum ,  and  in  general  such  connectives  as  do  not  im¬ 
ply  a  dependence  of  the  following,  on  the  preceding  clause. 

Obs.  2.  These  conjunctions  connect  not  only  words  but  also  clauses 
whose  construction  is  the  same,  i.  e.  whose  subjects  are  in  the  same 
case,  and  their  verbs  in  the  same  mood  ;  as,  Concidunt  venti,  fu~ 
giuntque  nubes. 

Obs.  3.  Words  in  the  same  construction  are  sometimes  in  a  different 
case  :  Still  they  are  coupled  by  the  above  conjunctions  ;  thus,  Mea 
et  reipublicce  interest.  Here,  rnca  and  reipublicce  though  in  different 
cases  are  in  the  same  construction  by  Rule  XVIII.  Exc.  I.  So, 
constitit  asse  et  pluris ,  Rule  XLIV.  Vir  magni  ingenii,  summdque  in - 
dustrid ,  Rule  VII.  & c.  The  subjunctive  being  often  used  for  the  irn 
perative  is  sometimes  coupled  with  it ;  as;  Disce  nec  invidcas. 

Obs.  4.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  may  be  connected  in  this 
manner,  if  the  latter  does  not  depend  on  the  former. 

Obs.  5.  When  two  words  coupled  together  have  each  a  conjunction 
such  as,  et,  aut ,  vel,  sive,  nec,  & e.  without  being  connected  with  a  pre¬ 
ceding  word  the  first  et  is  rendered  both  or  likewise  ;  the  first  aut  or 
vel,  by  either  •  the  first  sive,  by  whether,  and  the  first  nec  or  neque  by 

neither.  So,  also,  turn. _ turn,  and  cum _ turn,  not  only.  ...but 

also;  or  both. ...  and.  And  so  of  others:  as,  nunc ...  .nunc  ;  jam, 
. . .  .jam,  &c.  In  such  cases  the  conjunctive  before  the  first  word  ren¬ 
ders  it  more  emphatic:  turn. . .  .turn,  often  mean,  11  at  one  time. . .  .at 
another  timed’ 

Obs.  6  After  words  expressing  similarity  or  dissimilarity,  ac  and 
atque  signify  “  as;”  and  “than;”  as,  Facis  ac  si  me  roges,  11  You 
do  as  if  you  should  ask  me.”  Me  colit  oeque  atque  patronum  suum,  11  He 
shews  me  as  much  attention  as,”  be.  Si  aliter  scribo  ac  sentio,  11  If  I 
write  otherwise  than  I  think.” 

Obs.  7.  Conjunctions  that  do  not  imply  doubt  and  contingency;  are 
usually  joined  with  the  indicative  mood  ;  those  which  do  imply  doubt, 
contingency  and  dependence,  are  lor  the  most  part  joined  with  the 
subjunctive.  §  140.  Obs.  1.  2.  3. 


§150 


SYNTAX. - FIGURES. 


265 


$  150.  FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 

A  Figure  is  a  manner  of  speaking  different  from  the  regular 
and  ordinary  construction,  used  for  the  sake  of  beauty  or  force 

The  figures  of  Syntax  or  construction,  may  be  reduced  to  four,  El¬ 
lipsis,  Pleonasm ,  Enallage,  and  Hyp  erb  at  on.  Of  these,  the  first,  and 
second,  and  third,  respect  the  constituent  parts  of  a  sentence,  the 
fourth  respects  only  the  arrangement  of  words. 

1.  Ellipsis,  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  necessary 
to  complete  the  sense ;  as, 

Aiunt,  ferunt,  8cc.  sc.  homines.  Aberant  bidui,  sc.  iter,  or  itmere. 
Quid  multa  ?  sc.  dicam.  Under  this  may  be  comprehended, 

1st.  Asyndeton,  or  the  omission  of  a  conjunction  ;  as,  veni,  vidi , 
vici.  Deus  optimus,  maximus,  sc.  et. 

2d.  Zeugma  is  the  uniting  of  two  nouns  or  infinitives  to  a  verb 
which  is  applicable  only  to  one  of  them  ;  as,  Pacem  an  bellum 
gerens.  Sail,  where  gerens  is  applicable  to  bellum  only.  In 
this  way,  nego  is  sometimes  used  with  two  propositions,  one  of 
which  is  affirmative  ;  as,  Negant  Ccesarem  mansurum,  postu - 
lataque  inter posita  esse:  i.  e.  dicuntque  postulata. 

3d.  Syllepsis  is  when  an  adjective  or  a  verb  belonging  to  two  or 
more  nouns  of  different  genders,  persons,  or  numbers,  agrees 
with  one  rather  than  another.  See  examples  §  98.  Obs.  2.  3. 

4th.  Synechdoche  is  the  use  of  an  accusative  of  the  part  affected  in. 
stead  of  an  ablative;  as,  Expleri  mentem  nequit.  Virg. 
§  128.  Exc. 

2.  Pleonasm,  is  using  a  greater  number  of  words  than  is 
necessary  to  express  the  meaning ;  as, 

Sic  ore  locuta  est,  u  thus  she  spoke  with  her  mouth.”  Virg.  Under 
this  are  included, 

1st.  Polysyndeton ,  or  a  redundancy  of  conjunctions  ;  as,  Una  Eurus 
que  Notusque  ruunt.  Virg. 

2d.  Hendiadys,  or  the  expression  of  an  idea,  by  two  nouns  connect¬ 
ed  by  a  conjunction,  instead  of  a  nounlimitedbyanadjective.or 
genitive  ;  as,  Pateris  libamus  et  auro,  “We  offer  a  libation 
from  cups  and  from  gold,”  instead  of  pattris  aureis ,  from 
golden  cups. 

3d.  Periphrasis  or  a  circuitous  mode  of  expression  ;  as,  Teneri 
foetus  ovium,  “  the  tender  young  of  the  sheep,”  instead  of  ag 
ni,  lambs. 

3.  Enallage,  is  a  change  of  words,  or  a  change  of  one 
gender,  number,  case,  person,  tense,  mood,  or  voice  of  the  same 
word  for  another.  It  includes, 

1st.  Antimeria  or  the  using  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another  ;  as, 
nostrum  vivere,  for  nostra  vita ;  conjugium  videbit,  for  conju 
gem.  &c. 


23 


266 


SYNTAX.—  LATIN  ARRANGEMENT. 


§  Uil 

2d.  Heterosis,  or  the  using  of  one  form  of  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  verb 
for  another  ;  as,  Romanus  prcelio  victor,  for  Romani  viAores. 
Truncus  me  sustulerat,  for  sustulisset.  Hor. 

3d.  Antiptosis ,  or  the  using  of  one  case  for  another  ;  as  cui  nunc 
cognomen  Iulo  for  lulus.  Virg.  (j  97.  Exc.  2.  and  114.  Obs. 
5.  Uxor  invicti  Jovis  esse  nescis ,  for  te  esse  uxorem.  Hor.  See 
§  145.  Obs.  3. 

4th.  Syntsis  or  Synthesis,  is  adapting  the  construction  to  the  sense  of 
a  word  rather  than  to  its  gender  or  number  ;  as,  Concursus  popu- 
li  mirantium; — Pars  in  crucem  acti ; — scelusqui,  &c.  §  88.  Exc. 
1.  and  §  99.  Exc.  1. 

5th.  Anacoluthon ,  or  a  departure  in  the  end  of  a  sentence,  from 
the  construction  with  which  it  commenced.  Thus,  Nam  nos 

omnes,  quibus  est  alicunde  aliquis  objectus  labos . lucro 

est.  Here  the  writer  began  as  if  he  intended  to  say  lucro  ha - 
be?nus,  and  ended  as  if  he  had  said  nobis  omnibus.  As  it  is, 
the  nominative  nos  has  no  verb,  and  est,  which  in  such  sen¬ 
tences  requires  the  dative  of  a  person,  is  without  it. 

4.  Hyperbaton,  is  a  transgression  of  the  usual  order  of 
words  or  clauses.  It  includes, 

1st.  Anastrophe,  or  an  inversion  of  the  order  of  twro  words  ;  as, 
Transtra  per  et  remos,  for  per  transtra,  &c. ; — Collo  dare  bra • 
chia  circum,  for  circumdare,  &c. 

2d.  HystZron  prottron,  or  reversing  the  natural  order  of  the  sense  ; 
as,  Moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus.  Virg.  Valet  atque 
vivit,  Ter. 

3d.  Hypallage  or  an  interchange  of  constructions  ;•  as,  In  novafert 
animus  mutatas  dicere  formas  corpora ,  for  corpora  mutata  in 
novas  formas.  Dare  classibus  Austros,  for  dare  classes  Austris. 

4th.  Tmesis,  or  separating  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  ;  as, 
Septem  subjecta  irioni  gens ,  for  Septentrioni.  Virg.  Quce  me 
cunque  vocant  terrce  for  qucecunque ,  &c. 

5th.  Parenthesis,  the  insertion  of  a  word  or  clause  in  a  sentence 
which  interrupts  the  natural  connection;  as,  Tityre  dum  redeo 
(brevis  est  via,)  pasce  capellas.  Virg. 

To  these  may  be  added, 

Archaism,  which  in  Syntax  means  the  use  of  ancient 
forms  of  construction  ;  as,  Operam  abutitur ,  for  opera.  Ter. 
Quid  tibi  hanc  curatio  est  rem  ? 

Hellenism  or  the  use  of  Greek  constructions  ;  as,  Absti¬ 
nent  o  irdrum,  for  iris.  Hor.  Tempus  desist  ere  pugnce ,  for 
pugnd.  Virg. 


§  151.  LATIN  ARRANGEMENT. 

In  all  languages,  the  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence  is  different; 
and  all,  it  is  probable,  consider  the  order  of  arrangement  in  their  own 
language  the  most  natural,  being  that  to  wrhich  they  have  themselves 


$  151  SYNTAX. - LATIN  ARRANGEMENT 


267 


been  most  accustomed.  In  a  language  like  the  English,  however, 
the  words  of  which  have  but  few  changes  of  form  or  termination, 
much  more  depends  on  their  position  in  a  sentence  than  in  those  lan 
guages  which  are  able,  by  the  changes  of  form  only,  to  indicate 
the  relation  of  words  to  each  other,  however  they  may  be  arranged. 
Thus  when  we  say  in  English,  11  Alexander  conquered  Darius ,”  if 
we  change  the  order  of  the  words  we  necessarily  change  the  mean¬ 
ing  also  ;  as,  Darius  conquered  Alexander.  But  whether  we  say  in 
Latin,  Alexander  vicit  Darium,  or  Darium  vicit  Alexander ,  or  Alex¬ 
ander  Darium  vicit ,  or  Darium  Alexander  vicit ,  or  place  these  words 
in  any  other  possible  order  of  arrangement,  the  meaning  is  the 
same  and  cannot  be  mistaken;  because  it  depends,  not  on  the  po¬ 
sition,  but  on  the  form  of  the  words.  This  gave  the  Latin  writer 
much  more  scope  to  arrange  his  words  in  that  order  which  would 
best  promote  the  strength  or  euphony  of  the  sentence,  without  en¬ 
dangering  its  perspicuity.  Still  even  in  Latin,  custom  has  established 
a  certain  order  of  arrangement  which  is  considered  the  best.  And 
though  no  certain  rules  can  be  given  on  this  subject,  which  are  ap¬ 
plicable  to  every  instance,  the  following  general  principles  and  Rules 
may  be  noticed. 

General  principles  of  Latin  Arrangement . 

1.  The  word  governed  is  placed  before  the  word  which 
governs  it. 

2.  The  word  agreeing  is  placed  after  the  word  with  which 
it  agrees.  More  particularly, 

Rule  I.  The  subject  is  generally  put  before  the  verb ;  as, 
Reus  mundum  gubernat. 

Exc.  1.  When  the  subject  is  closely  connected  with  a  clause  fol¬ 
lowing  the  verb,  it  is  placed  after  the  verb  ;  as,  erant  omnino  duo  iti¬ 
nera,  quibus,  Sec. 

Exc.  2.  When  the  subject  is  emphatic,  it  usually  follows  the  verb 
and  concludes  the  sentence. 

Rule  II.  The  adjective  or  participle  most  commonly  fol¬ 
lows  the  substantive  with  which  it  agrees. 

With  few  exceptions,  however,  the  place  of  the  adjective 
or  participle  is  entirely  arbitrary.  The  following  usages  may 
be  noticed. 

1st.  The  adjectives  primus,  medius,  ultimus ,  extremus,  summus,  in- 
fimus,  imus,  supremus,  rellquus,  cceterus,  denoting  the  first  part, 
Ihe  middle  part,  See.  are  generally  put  before  the  subsfantive  ; 
as,  summus  mons-,  Exirtmo  libro,  the  top  of  the  mountain,  &c. 

2d.  When  the  substantive  governs  another  in  the  genitive,  the  ad¬ 
jective  generally  precedes  both  ;  as,  Duo  Platonis  precept  a. 

3d.  When  the  substantive  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  the  adjec¬ 
tive  is  frequently  put  before  the  substantive  ;  as,  Hac  in 
questione  ;  magna  in  parte . 


2f)8  SYNTAX. - LATIN  ARRANGEMENT.  §  151 

4th.  The  adjective  is  often  put  before  the  substantive  for  the  sake 
of  Euphony. 

5th.  Is,  Me,  hie,  iste,  are  generally  placed  before  the  substantive, 
and,  if  used  substantively,  are  placed  before  the  participle. 

Rule  III.  The  relative  is  commonly  placed  after,  and  as 
near  as  possible  to  its  antecedent. 

Obs.  1.  The  relative  is  commonly  the  first  word  of  its  own  clause, 
and  when  it  stands  for  et  Me,  el  hie,  et  is,  or  for  these  pronouns  with* 
out  et.  §  99.  Obs.  8.  it  is  always  first.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
relative  and  its  clause  precede  the  antecedent  and  its  clause. 

Rule  IV.  The  governing  word  is  generally  placed  after 
the  word  governed  ;  as,  Carthaginiensium  dux — laudis  avi - 
dus — Romanorum  ditissimus — hostem  fudit ,  &c.  Hence, 

Obs.  2.  The  finite  verb  is  commonly  the  last  in  its  own  clause.  To 
this,  however,  there  are  many  exceptions. 

Rule  V.  Adverbs  are  generally  introduced  before  the 
word  which  they  are  intended  to  modify  ;  as,  Leviter  cegro- 
tantes ,  leniter  cur  ant.  Cic. 

Rule  VI.  Conjunctions  generally  introduce  the  clause  to 
which  they  belong ;  as,  At  si  dares  ;  Sed  profecto  in  omni 
re  fortuna  dominatur. 

Exc.  1.  The  enclitics  que,  ve,  ne ,  are  always  annexed — the  two  first, 
to  the  latter  of  the  two  words  which  they  serve  to  connect ;  as,  Albus 
aterve.  Cic.  Boni  malique; — and  the  last,  to  the  subject  which  the 
question  chiefly  regards,  thus,  Loquarne?  “  Shall  I  speak?”  Egone 
loquar  ?  11  Shall  I  speak?” 

Exc.  2.  The  conjunctions  Autem .  enim,  vero,  qubque,  quidem,  are 
always  placed  after  the  introductory  word  of  the  clause  generally  in 
the  second  place,  and  sometimes  in  the  third.  Etiam,  igilur,  and 
tamen,  more  frequently  in  the  second  and  third  place  than  in  the  first. 

Rule  VII.  Words  connected  in  sense,  should  be  as  close 
as  possible  to  each  other,  and  the  words  of  one  clause  should 
never  be  mixed  with  those  of  another. 

.  Rule  VIII.  Circumstances,  viz  :  the  “  cause,”  the  “  man¬ 
ner,”  the  “  instrument,”  the  “  time,”  the  “  place,”  &c.  are 
put  before  the  predicate  ;  as, 

Eum  ferro  occidi ,*  Ego  te  ob  egregiam  virtulem  semper  amavx . 

Rule  IX.  The  proper  name  should  precede  the  name  of 
rank  or  profession  ;  as  Cicero  orator . 

Rule  X.  The  Vocative  should  either  introduce  the  sen¬ 
tence,  or  be  placed  among  the  first  words ;  as,  Credo  cos, 
judices. 


SYNTAX. - ANALYSIS. 


269 


§  152 

Rule  XI.  When  there  is  an  antithesis,  the  words  chiefly 
opposed  to  each  other  should  be  as  close  together  as  possi¬ 
ble  ;  as,  Appetis  pecuniam ,  virtutem  abjicis. 

Rule  XII.  Dependent  clauses,  as  well  as  single  words,  are 
placed  before  the  principal  finite  verb  upon  which  they  chiefly 
depend. 

Rule  XIII.  As  a  general  rule,  where  the  case  will  admit, 
it  is  proper  to  proceed  from  shorter  to  longer  words,  and 
from  shorter  to  longer  clauses  and  members  of  a  sentence, 
as  we  advance  towards  the  close. 

Hence,  it  will  follow,  that  a  sentence  should  not  conclude 
with  a  monosyllable,  when  it  can  be  avoided. 

Remark.  These,  however,  are  to  be  considered  as  but  general  rules,  subject 
to  many  modifications,  and  exceptions,  according  to  the  taste  of  different  wri¬ 
ters.  However,  as  a  general  guide,  with  elose  attention  to  classical  usage  and 
euphony,  they  may  be  of  use  to  enable  the  student  to  avoid  errors  on  this  sub¬ 
ject. 


§  152.  RESOLUTION  OR  ANALYSIS. 

Every  simple  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  the  subject  and  the 
predicate,  §  94.  6.  7.  8.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  between  the  Grammatical  subject  and  predicate,  and  the 
Logical  subject  and  predicate. 

The  Grammatical  subject  is  the  name  or  thing  spoken  of,  without, 
or  separated  from,  all  modifying  words  or  clauses,  and  which  stands 
as  the  nominative  to  the  verb,  or  the  accusative  before  the  infinitive. 

The  Logical  subject  is  the  same  word  in  connection  with  the  quali¬ 
fying  or  restricting  expressions,  which  go  to  make  up  the  full  and 
precise  idea  of  the  thing  spoken  of. 

The  Grammatical  'predicate  is  the  word  or  words  containing  the 
simple  affirmation,  made  respecting  the  subject. 

The  Logical  predicate  is  the  grammatical  predicate  combined  with 
all  those  words  or  expressions  that  modify  or  restrict  it  in  any  way; 
thus: 

In  the  sentence,  u  An  inordinate  desire  of  admiration  often  produc¬ 
es  a  contemptible  levity  of  deportment;’5  the  Grammatical  subject  is 
“  desire;”  the  Logical  “An  inordinate  desire  of  admiration ,55  The 
Grammatical  predicate  is  le  produces  f  the  Logical,  “  produces  often 
a  contemptible  levity  of  deportment  A 

In  Latin  and  English,  the  general  arrangement  of  a  sentence  is  the 
same,  i.  e.  the  sentence  commonly  begins  with  the  subject  and  ends 
with  the  predicate.  But  the  order  of  the  words  in  each  of  these  parts, 
is  usually  so  different  in  Latin,  from  what  it  is  in  English,  that  one 
of  the  first  difficulties  a  beginner  has  to  encounter  with  a  La¬ 
tin  sentence,  is  to  know  how  “  to  take  it  in,55  or  to  arrange  it  in  the 


270 


SYNTAX. 


ANALYSIS. 


§  152 

order  of  the  English.  This  is  technically  called  construing  or  giving 
the  order.  To  assist  in  this,  some  advantage  may  be  found  by  care¬ 
fully  attending  to  the  following 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  BEGINNERS. 

Direct.  1.  As  all  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence  depend 
upon  the  two  leading  parts,  namely,  the  subject  or  NOMI¬ 
NATIVE,  and  the  predicate  or  VERB;  the  first  thing  to 
be  done  with  every  sentence,  is  to  find  out  these.  In  order 
to  this, 

First.  Look  for  the  leading  verb,  which  is  always  in  the 
present,  imperfect,  perfect,  pluperfect,  or  future  of  the  indi¬ 
cative,  or  in  the  imperative  mood,#  and  usually  at  or  near  the 
end  of  the  sentence. 

Second.  Having  found  the  verb,  observe  its  number  and 
person  ;  this  will  aid  in  finding  its  nominative,  which  is  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  same  number  and  person  with  the 
verb,  commonly  before  it,  and  near  the  beginning  of  the  sen¬ 
tence,  though  not  always  so,  §  151.  R.  I.  with  exceptions. 

Direct.  2.  Having  thus  found  the  nominative  and  verb, 
and  ascertained  their  meaning,  the  sentence  may  be  resolved 
from  the  Latin  into  the  English  order,  as  follows  : 

1st.  Take  the  Vocative ,  Exciting ,  Introductory ,  or  con¬ 
necting  zvords,  if  there  are  any. 

2d.  The  NOMINATIVE. 

3d.  Words  limiting  or  explaining  it,  i.  e.  words  agreeing 
with  it,  or  governed  by  it,  or  by  one  another,  where  they  are 
found,  till  you  come  to  the  verb. 

4th.  The  VERB. 

5th.  Words  limiting  or  explaining  it,  i.  e.  words  which 
modify  it,  are  governed  by  it,  or  depend  upon  it. 

6th.  Supply  everywhere  the  words  understood. 

7th.  If  the  sentence  be  compound,  take  the  parts  of  it  se¬ 
verally  as  they  depend  one  upon  another,  proceeding  with 
each  of  them  as  above. 

Direct.  3.  In  arranging  the  words  for  translation,  in  the 
subordinate  parts  of  a  sentence,  observe  the  following 

*  All  the  other  parts  of  the  verb  are  generally  used  in  subordinate  clauses.  So, 
also,  is  the  pluperfect  indicative.  In  oblique  discourse,  the  leading  verb  is  in 
the  infinitive,  $  141.  Rule  VI. 


SYNTAX. - ANALYSIS. 


271 


RULES  FOR  CONSTRUING. 

I.  An  oblique  case,  or  the  infinitive  mood,  is  put  after  the 
word  that  governs  it. 

Exc.  The  relative  and  interrogative  are  usually  put  before  the 
governing  word,  unless  that  be  a  preposition;  if  it  is,  then  after  it. 

II.  An  adjective,  if  no  other  word  depend  upon  it  or  be 
coupled  with  it,  is  put  before  its  substantive ;  but  if  ano¬ 
ther  word  depend  upon  it,  or  be  governed  by  it,  it  is  usu¬ 
ally  placed  after  it. 

III.  The  participle  is  usually  construed  after  its  substan¬ 
tive,  or  the  word  with  which  it  agrees. 

IV.  The  relative  and  its  clause,  should,  if  possible,  come 
immediately  after  the  antecedent. 

V.  When  a  question  is  asked,  the  nominative  comes  after 
the  verb  5  (in  English  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb.) 
Interrogative  words,  however,  such  as  quis ,  quotus ,  quantus , 
uter,  & c.  come  before  the  verb. 

VI.  After  a  transitive  active  verb  look  for  an  accusative, — 
and  after  a  preposition,  for  an  accusative  or  ablative,  and  ar¬ 
range  the  words  accordingly. 

VII.  Words  in  apposition  must  be  construed  as  near  to¬ 
gether  as  possible. 

VIII.  Adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  prepositions  with  their 
cases,  circumstances  of  time,  place,  cause,  manner,  instru¬ 
ment,  &c.  should  be  placed,  in  general,  after  the  words  which 
they  modify.  The  case  absolute  commonly  before  them,  and 
often  first  in  the  sentence. 

IX.  The  words  of  different  clauses  must  not  be  mixed  to¬ 
gether,  but  each  clause  translated  by  itself,  in  its  order,  ac¬ 
cording  to  its  connection  with,  or  dependence  upon,  those  to 
which  it  is  related. 

X.  Conjunctions  to  be  placed  before  the  last  of  two  words, 
or  sentences  connected. 

Examples  of  Resolution . 

First.  Etenim  omnes  artes,  quas  ad  humanitatem  pertinent, 
habent  quoddam  commune  vinculum,  et  quasi  cognatione 
quadam  inter  se  continentur.  Cic. 

1.  In  looking  over  this  sentence,  according  to  Direction  1 
we  find  the  first  leading  verb  to  be  habent ,  which  must  have  a 
plural  nominative.  This  leads  us  at  once  to  artes ,  as  the  no- 


272  SYNTAX. - ANALYSIS.  §  152 

minative.  The  nominative  and  verb  being  thus  found  on 
which  the  other  parts  depend,  then, 

2.  By  direction  second,  the  general  arrangement  will  be, 

1.  Connective  word,  Etenim . 

2.  NOMINATIVE,  “  artes .” 

3.  Words  limiting  and  explaining,  omnes,  qua  ad  huma * 

nitatem  pertinent. 

4.  The  VERB,  habent. 

5.  Words  governed  by  it,  quoddam  commune  vinculum. 

3.  Then  by  the  rules  in  direction  3,  the  words  in  each  of 
these  divisions,  will  be  arranged  thus.  1.  Etenim;  2.  and  3. 
omnes  artes ,  (R.’II.)  qua,  (R.  III.)  pertinent  ad  humani- 
tatem,  (R.  VIII.)  4.  habent ,  5.  quoddam  commune  vincu - 
lum ,  (R.  II.) 

By  proceeding  in  the  same  manner  with  the  next  clause, 
the  whole  will  then  stand  thus ; 

Etenim  omnes  artes,  quae  pertinent  ad  humanitatem,  ha¬ 
bent  quoddam  commune  vinculum,  et  continentur  inter  se 
quasi  quadam  cognatione ; — and  may  be  translated  as  follows  : 

“  For  all  the  arts  which  pertain  to  liberal  knowledge,  (ci¬ 
vilization,)  have  a  certain  common  bond,  and  are  connected 
together  as  if  by  a  certain  affinity  between  them.” 

The  pupil  will  now  see,  that  in  the  first  clause,  or  simple 
sentence,  the  Grammatical  subject  is  artes ;  the  Logical — omnes 
artes  qua  ad  humanitatem  pertinent. — The  Grammatical  pre¬ 
dicate  is  habent;  the  Logical — habent  quoddam  commune  vin¬ 
culum;  and  so  with  the  next  clause. 

In  like  manner  proceed  with  every  new  simple  sentence, 
or  with  every  succeeding  clause  of  a  compound  sentence. 

Example  Second. 

Justum  et  tenacem  propositi  virum 
Non  civium  ardor  prava  jubentium, 

Non  vultus  instantis  tyranni 
Mente  quatit  solida. — 

« 

1.  Here  again,  by  Direction  1,  we  find  the  leading  verb 
to  be  quatit ,  and  its  nominative  ardor.  2.  Then,  as  before, 

1.  Connecting  words — none. 

2.  The  NOMINATIVE,  ardor. 

3.  Limiting  words,  civium  jubentium  prava. 

2.  A  second  NOMINATIVE,  vultus . 


SYNTAX. - PARSINGS. 


273 


§  153 


3.  Limiting  words,  instantis  tyranni . 

4.  VERB,  quatit. 

5.  Words  modifying  and  governed  by  it,  non — mente 
solidd  justum  et  tendcem  propositi  virum. 

3.  By  the  rules  in  Direction  third,  then  the  order  will  stand 
thus.  Ardor  civium,  (R.  I.)  jubentium,  (R.  III.)  prava  (sc. 
negotia,  R.  I.  and  II.)  Again,  Vultus  instantis  tyranni. 
(R.  I.  and  II.)  non  quatit  solida  mente,  (R.  VIII.  and  II.) 
virum,  (R.  I.)  justum  ettenacem,  (R.  II.)  propositi,  (R.  I.)  i.  e. 

Ardor  civium  jubentium  prava  (negotia),  vultus  instantis 
tyranni,  non  quatit  solida  mente  virum  justum  et  tenacem 
propositi. 


§  153.  ETYMOLOGICAL  AND  SYNTACTICAL 

PARSING. 

Having  arranged  and  translated  a  sentence,  the  next  thing 
is  to  parse  it,  in  doing  which,  every  word  should  be  fully  de¬ 
scribed  by  its  accidents,  traced  to  its  primitive,  if  a  deriva¬ 
tive, — analyzed  into  its  parts  if  compound,  and  its  concord 
or  government  pointed  out.  The  following  scheme,  with 
each  part  of  speech,  may  be  useful  to  the  beginner. 

1.  Noun. — 1.  kind;  2.  Gender;  3.  Declension;  4.  De¬ 
cline;  5.  Derived  from  (if  derived  ;)  6.  it  is  found  in - 

Case;  7.  Number;  8.  is  the  nominative  to  (if  the  nominative) 
is  governed  by — (if  governed)  9.  Rule. 

2.  Adjective. — 1.  Declension;  2.  Decline  it;  3.  com¬ 
pare  it  (if  compared ;)  4.  It  is  found  in — Case ;  5.  Number ; 
6.  Gender ;  7.  agrees  with — 8.  Rule. 

3.  Pronoun. — 1.  kind;  (i.  e.  personal,  relative,  or  adjec¬ 
tive,)  2.  Decline  it;  then, 

If  personal,  3.  Person;  4.  found  in — Case;  5.  Number: 
6.  Reason  of  the  case  ;  7.  Rule  ;  8.  stands  lor — 

If  a  Relative  pronoun,  3.  found  in — Case ;  4.  Number ; 
5.  Reason  of  the  case  ;  6.  Rule  ;  7.  Its  antecedent ;  8.  Rule. 

If  an  Adjective  pronoun;  then,  3.  Kind,  (i,  e.  possessive, 
indefinite,  demonstrative,  &c.)  4.  It  is  found  in — Case ;  5. 
Number  ;  6.  Gender  ;  7.  Agrees  with  ;  8.  Rule. 

4.  Verb. — 1.  Kind,  viz  :  Transitive,  or  Intransitive,  (or 
if  preferred,  Active  or  Neuter,)  2.  Conjugation,  (or  Irregu 
lar,  if  it  is  so,)  3.  Conjugate  it ;  4.  derived  from,  (if  deriv 


274 


SYNTAX. - PARSING. 


6  153 

ed  ;)  5.  Compounded  of — (if  compounded,)  6.  It  is  found  in 
— Tense;  7.  Mood;  8.  Voice;  9.  Person  ;  10.  Number;  11. 
agrees  with — as  its  subject ;  12.  Rule  ;  13.  give  a  Synopsis. 

5.  Adverb. — 1.  Derived  from,  (if  derived,)  2.  Compound¬ 

ed  of,  (if  compounded,)  3.  Compared,  (if  compared,)  4.  It 
modifies ; - 5.  Rule. 

6.  Preposition. — 1.  Governs - case;  2.  Rule;  3.  It 

points  out  the  relation  between - and - 

7.  Interjection. — 1.  Kind;  2.  Governs,  or  is  put  with 

the - case  ;  3.  Rule. 

8.  Conjunction. — 1.  Kind; —  2.  Connects - 3.  Rule. 

Example  of  Parsing  by  the  foregoing  Scheme. . 

The  first  of  the  above  examples  may  serve  as  an  example 
of  Etymological  and  Syntactical  parsing,  and  for  this  purpose 
we  arrange  it  in  the  order  of  translation,  as  above. 

“  Etenim  omnes  artes,  quae  pertinent  ad  humanitatem 
habent  quoddam  commune  vinculum,  et  continentur  inter  se 
quasi  quadam  cognatione.” 

Etenim,  conjunction,  casual,  connecting  the  following  sen¬ 
tence  with  the  preceding,  as  containing  the  cause  or  reason 
of  what  is  there  stated. 

Omnes ,  An  adjective,  3d  decl.  omnis ,  - is ,  -e,  &c.  not  com¬ 
pared,  because  incapable  of  increase, — in  the  nom.  pi.  fern, 
and  agrees  with  artes,  (Rule,)  “An  adjective  agrees,”  See. 

Artes ,  A  noun  (or  substantive,)  fern.  3d  (decl.)  ars*  artis, 
&c. — in  the  nom.  pi. — the  nom.  to  (or,  subject  of,)  habent. 

Quee,  Rel.  pron. — in  the  nom.  pi.  fern.  nom.  to  'pertinent 
and  agrees. with  its  antecedent  artes,  Rule  III. 

Pertinent,  Verb,  intransitive  (or  neuter,)  2d  (conj.) 
pertineo,  -ere,  -ui,  pertentum ;  compounded  of  per ,  and 
teneo, — in  the  pres.  ind.  act.  3d.  (pers.)  pi.  and  agrees  with 
quee.  Rule  IV.  “A  verb  agrees,”  &c. 

Ad,  Preposition,  governs  the  acc.  shews  the  relation  be¬ 
tween  pertinent  and  humanitatem. 

Humanitatem,  Noun,  fern.  3d,  humanitas , — atis ,  &c. 
Abstract,  derived  from  humanus.  §  6.2,2,  in  the  acc.  sing. 

*As  all  nouns  are  common  except  proper  nouns ,  to  save  time  in  parsing  this 
may  always  be  taken  for  granted,  mentioning,  however,  when  the  noun  is 
proper.  For  the  same  reason  the  words,  “  declension,”  “gender,”  “number,” 
“conjugation,”  “mood,”  “  tense,”  may  be  omitted,  these  being  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  words  masculine,  singular,  indicative,  See. 


SYNTAX. - PARSING. 


275 


§  153 

governed  by  ad.  Rule  XL VIII.  “Twenty-eight  preposi¬ 
tions,”  &c. 

Habent ,  Verb  transitive  (or  active)  2d.  habeo,  -ere,  - ui , 
- itum , — in  the  pres.  ind.  act.  3d  pers.  pi.— and  agrees  with 
artes.  Rule  IV.  “  A  verb  agrees,”  &c.  Synopsis. 

Quoddam ,  indef.  adj.  pron.  quidam,  qucedam ,  &c.  com¬ 
pounded  of  quis  and  the  syllable  dam. — in  the  acc.  sing, 
neut.  and  agrees  with  vinculum.  Rule  II.  “An  adjective 
agrees,”  &c. 

Vinculum ,  noun,  neut.  2d.  vinculum,  -i,  &c. — In  the  acc. 
sing,  governed  by  habent.  Rule  XX.  “  A  tr.  verb  signifying 
actively,”  &c. 

Et,  a  conjunction,  copulative,  connecting  continentur  with 
habent ,  which  are  consequently  in  the  same  construction, 
($  149.  Exp.)  and  have  the  same  nominative  artes. 

Continentur ,  A  verb.  Trans,  (or  active)  2d ;  contineo ,  conti¬ 
nue,  continui,  contentum  ;  compounded  of  con  and  teneo. — 
in  the  pres.  ind.  pass. — 3d  pers. — pi.  and  agrees  with  artes. 
Rule  IV.  “  A  verb  agrees,”  &c.  Synopsis. 

Inter ,  a  preposition  which  governs  the  accusative,  and  here 
points  out  the  relation  of  reciprocity  between  the  individuals 
represented  by  se.  (§  28.  Obs.  5.) 

Se,  Substantive  pron.  3d  pers. — intheacc.pl.  fem.  governed 
by  inter.  Rule  XL VIII.  “Twenty-eight  prepositions,”  &c. 
refers  to  artes,  the  subject  of  continentur ,  and  is  here  taken 
reciprocally.  §  28.  Obs.  5. 

Quasi ,  An  adverb  of  manner  modifying  continentur.  Rule. 

Quddam,  Indef.  adj.  pron.  quidam,  qucedam ,  & c.  com¬ 
pounded  of  quis  and  the  syllable  -dam — in  the  ablative  sing, 
fem.  and  agrees  with  cognatione.  Rule  II.  “  An  Adjective 
agrees,”  &c. 

Cognatione,  A  noun,  fem.  3d  (deck)  cognatio,  - onis ,  &c. 
from  cognatus  “related  by  birth,”  (from  con  and nascor)- — in 
the  ablative  of  manner ,  relating  to  continentur  inter  se.  Rule. 

Note. — In  this  way  by  stating  every  thing  respecting  a  word  in 
the  shortest  possible  manner,  and  without  waiting  to  be  questioned, 
parsing  may  he  done  rapidly,  and  much  time  saved  ;  and  then  such 
questions  may  be  put  as  will  draw  attention  to  any  thing  not  included 
in  the  above  scheme.  By  a  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  in  leading  the  pupil  to  understand  and  apply  the  preceding 
rules  for  arranging  a  sentence  in  the  order  of  translation,  he  wilt 
save  much  time  and  labor  to  himself  afterwards  and  accustom  thf 
learner  to  the  important  lesson  of  reasoning  out  a  difficult  sentence 
and  so  by  repeated  victories  to  gain  confidence  in  his  own  powers. 


276 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


§  154-5 


PART  FOURTH. 


PROSODY. 

Prosody  in  its  common  acceptation,  treats  of  the  quantity 
of  syllables  in  the  construction  of  verses ;  in  other  words,  of 
Quantity  and  Metre. 


§  154.  OF  QUANTITY. 

Quantity  means  the  relative  length  of  time  taken  up  in 
pronouncing  a  syllable. 

1.  In  respect  of  quantity  every  syllable  is  either  long  or  short . 
When  a  syllable  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short,  it  is 
said  to  be  common. 

2.  The  quantity  of  syllables  is  determined  by  certain  es¬ 
tablished  rules;  or  when  no  rule  applies, — by  the  authority 
of  the  poets. 

3.  The  rules  of  quantity  are  either  general  or  special . 
The  former  apply  alike  to  all  the  syllables  of  a  word,  the  lat¬ 
ter  to  particular  syllables. 


§  155.  GENERAL  RULES. 

Rule  L  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short;  as, 
Deus ,  alius,  nihil. 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  to  a  vowel  before  another 
vowel  or  diphthong  in  a  different  syllable,  whether  it  be  in  the  same, 
or  in  a  different  word.  The  letter  h  in  verse,  being  considered  as 
only  a  breathing,  is  wholly  disregarded,  hence  such  words  as,  nihil,  mU 
hi,  &he,  &c.  come  under  this  rule.  A  diphthong  before  a  vowel  does 
not  come  under  this  rule,  except  as  in  Rule  V.  Exc.  1. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  A  is  long  in  air ,  Cai,  aulai,  terrai ,  and  the  like 

2.  E  is  long  after  i  in  the  genitive  and  dative  of  the  fifth  declm 

sion  ;  as,  speciei ;  not  after  i,  it  is  common. 

E  is  long  in  eheu ,  Pompei. 


277 


§  155  PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 

6.  I  not  before  er,  is  long  in  fto-  as ,fio,  fiebam.  Also  in  alius 
the  genitive  of  alius. 

I  is  common  in  Diana ,  and  genitives  in  ius  ;  but  is  short  in  &l - 
terius.  Genitives  in  -ius,  in  prose,  have  i  long. 

4.  O  is  common  in  Ohe. 

5.  Greek  words  vary.  As  a  general  rule  when  the  vowel  befoie 
another  represents  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  in  the  Greek  word,  it  is 
long  ;  otherwise  it  is  short. 

Rule  II.  A  vowel  before  two  c  onsonants  or  a  double  con¬ 
sonant  is  long  by  position  ;  as, 

arma,  fallo,  axis,  gdza,  major. 

EXPLANATION. — When  a  final  syllable  is  long  b)r  another  rule, 
this  rule  does  not  apply  ;  the  double  consonants  under  this  rule  are, 
the  same  consonant  doubled  ;  as,  ll,  tl,  rr ,  &c.  and  the  letters  j,  x 
and  z,  equivalent  to  dg,  ks,  ds. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  A  short  vowel  in  the  end  of  a  word  before  two  consonants  m 
the  next  is  common  ;  before  sc,  sp ,  sq,  st,  it  is  usually  long  ;  before  a 
double  consonant  it  is  short. 

2.  A  vowel  before  j,  is  short  in  compounds  of  jugurn  as  bijugus. 

Rule  III.  A  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  liquid  is  common  ; 

as  volucris ,  or  volucris. 

EXPLANATION. — Under  this  rule  the  vowel  must  be  naturally 
short,  and  the  mute  must  come  before  the  liquid,  and  be  in  the  same 
syllable  with  it.  But  if  the  vowel  be  naturally  long  it  remains  so, 
as  matris  (from  py <r?]p  )  salubris,  &c.  If  the  mute  and  liquid 

be  in  different  syllables,  the  vowel  preceding  is  long  by  position  ; 
as,  dbluo,  obruo.  In  Latin  words  the  liquids  are  l  and  r  only.  In 
Greek  words  Z,  r,  m,  n. 

Obs.  1.  This  rule  is  properly  an  exception  to  Rule  II.  A  short 
vowel  in  the  end  of  a  word  is  seldom  affected  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid 
in  the  next. 

Rule  IV.  A  contracted  syllable  is  always  long  ;  as, 

Nil,  for  nihil ;  mi,  for  mihi ;  alius,  for  aliius ;  it  for  iit ;  sodes  for  « 
audes,  nolo  for  non  volo :  bigce,for  bijugce  ;  scilicet,  for  scire  licet,  & c. 
Rule  V.  A  diphthong  is  long ;  as,  Ccesar ,  Aurum ,  Eubcea . 

Exceptions 

1.  Prce  in  composition,  before  a  vowel,  is  commonly  short;  as. 
prceire  prceustus ,  &c. 

2.  Also,  ce  is  sometimes  Short  in  the  end  of  a  word,  when  the  next 
begins  with  a  vowel;  as,  Insulae  Ionio,  & c. 

Note. — U,  after  q  and  g,  does  not  form  a  diphthong  with  a  vowel 
following  it,  but  has  a  force  similar  to  the  English  xv;  as,  lingua 
cueror,  &c.  pronounced  lingwa ,  kweror.  §  1.  Obs,  2, 

24 


278 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


§  156-7 


SPECIAL  RULES. 

§  156.  FIRST  AND  MIDDLE  SYLLABLES. 

Rule  VI.  Preterites  of  two  Syllables  lengthen  the  former  J 

as,  veni,  vidi,  vici. 

Exc.  1.  Those  which  are  short  by  Rule  I;  as,  rui ,  lui,  & c. 

Exc.  2.  Seven  have  the  first  syllable  short;  viz:  bibi,  dcdi.fidi, 
(from  findo,)  scidi,  st£ti ,  stiti,  and  tuli. 

Rule  VII.  Preterites  which  double  the  first  syllable,  short¬ 
en  the  first  and  second  ;  as,  Cecidi ,  tetzgi ,  pepuli ,  & c.  from 
cado ,  ta?igo}  pello. 

Exc.  CZcidi,  from  ccedo;  and  pepedi ,  have  the  second  long. 

Rule  VIII.  Supines  of  two  syllables  lengthen  the  former ; 
as,  Cdsum ,  motum ,  visum ,  from  cacfo,  moveo ,  video. 

Exc.  Ten  have  the  first  syllable  short,  viz:  citum ,  (from  ci?o,) 
datum,  itum,  litum , — quitum,  ratum  rutum.sdtum, — situm.  and  stdtum. 

Rule  IX.  In  polysyllables,  a,  e,  and  w,  are  long  before 
•turn,  of  the  Supine ;  as,  Amdtum ,  deletum ,  indutum. 

Rule  X.  In  polysyllables,  z  is  short  before  turn  of  the 
Supine  ;  as,  monitum.  I  is  long  in  divisum. 

Exc.  But  Supines  in  itum ,  from  preterites  in  ivi,  have  i 
long ;  as,  Cupivi,  cupitum,  audivi ,  auditum ,  &c. 

Obs.  RecensSo  has  recensitum,  from  ui  in  the  preterite,  because  ori¬ 
ginally  from  censio,  censivi.  Eo  and  its  compounds  have  t  short;  as, 
itum,  reditum,  &c.  Except  ambio,  ambltum ,  4th  conj. 

Rule  XI.  Participles  in  - rus ,  have  u  long  in  the  penult  { 
as,  amaturus ,  &c. 


§  157.  INCREMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

1.  A  noun  is  said  to  increase,  when  any  of  its  cases  has  more  sylla¬ 
bles  than  the  nominative  singular  ;  as,  rex,  regis;  sermo,  sermonis. 

2.  With  only  few  exceptions,  nouns  have  but  one  increase  in  the 
singular  number  :  iter,  supellex ,  and  compounds  of  caput  in  ps,  have 
two;  as,  itinZris,  supellectilis,  prcecipitis,  from  preeceps. 

3  The  increment  or  increasing  syllable,  to  which  the  following 
rules  apply,  is  never  the  last  syllable,  but  the  one  preceding  it,  if 
there  be  one  increment;  or  the  two  preceding  it,  if  there  be  two,  & c. 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


279 


§  157 

4.  The  rules  for  the  increase  of  nouns,  apply  to  adjectives  and 
participles. 

5.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  have  no  increment  in  the  singu¬ 
lar;  those  of  the  first  and  fifth,  have  none  but  what  come  under  Rule 
I.  and  its  exceptions.  In  the  second  declension,  those  only  increase 
in  the  singular  which  end  in  r,  according  to  the  following, 

Rule.  The  increment  of  the  second  declension  is  short ;  as, 

Pueri,  viri,  saturi,  &c.  from  puer,  vir,  satur . 

Exc.  But  Iber  and  Celtiber,  have  Iberi  and  Celtiberi. 

INCREMENTS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

Rule.  XII.  Increments  of  the  third  declension  in  a  and  o 
are  long ;  e ,  i,  and  u,  short ;  as, 

Pietatis,  honoris ,  mulibris,  lapidis,  murmUris. 

Rules  with  Exceptions 

A. 

1.  Increments  in  a,  of  the  third  declension,  are  long. 

Exc.  1st.  The  increment  in  a ,  from  Masculines  in  al  and  ar  is  short, 
also  from  par ,  and  its  compounds; — from  anas,  mas ,  vas , 
( vadis )  baccar.  hepar,  jubar,  lar,  nectar ,  and  sal. 

Exc.  2d.  The  increment  in  a,  from  nouns  in  s,  with  a  consonant  be¬ 
fore  it,  is  short;  as,  Arabs,  Arabis. 

Exc.  3d.  The  increment  in  a,  from  Greek  nouns  in  -a,  - atis ;  and 
as,  -adis,  is  short;  as,  poema,  poemdtis",  lampas ,  lampadis. 
Exc.  4th.  Also  the  following  in  ax,  viz  :  abax,  anthrax,  Atax, 
Atrax,  climax ,  colax,  corax,  dr  op  ax,  fax,  harpax,panax , 
phylax,  smilax ,  and  styrax ,  increase  with  d  short. 

o. 

2.  Increments  in  o,  of  the  third  declension  are  long. 

Exc.  1st.  The  increment  in  o,  from  neuter  nouns  is  short;  as, 
marmor,  marmoris ;  corpus,  corpbris.  But  os,  oris,  and 
neuter  comparatives  increase  in  o  long,  Ador  has  add - 
ris,  or  adoris. 

Exc.  2d.  The  increment  in  o,  from  nouns  in  s  with  a  consonant  be¬ 
fore  it  is  short;  as,  scrobs,  serbbis ;  inops,  inopis.  But 
Cercops,  Cyclops ,  and  Hydrops,  have  o  short. 

Exc  3d.  Generally  from  Gentile  and  Greek  nouns  in  o,  and  on , 
the  increment  is  short;  as,  Macedo,  Macedonis:  but  some 
are  long,  and  some  are  common. 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


280 


§157 


Exc.  4th.  Greek  nouns  in  tor,  shorten  the  increment;  as,  Hector — 

oris, 

Exc.  5th.  Greek  nouns  in  pus,  (rfovg)  ;  as,  tripus,  Polypus ;  also, 
arbor ,  memor,  bos,  compos,  impos,  and  lepus,  have  3  short 
in  the  increment. 

E. 

3.  Increments  in  e,  of  the  third  declension,  are  short. 

Exc.  1st.  The  increment  in  -enis  from  en  and  o  is  long;  as,  Siren , 

Sir  enis;  Anio ,  Anienis. 

Exc.  2d.  The  increment  in  e  is  long  from  hares,  locuples,  mansues, 
merces,  and  quies.  Also  from  Iber  and  ver — from  lex,  rex 
and  vertex — plebs,  seps,  and  halec. 

Exc.  3d.  Greek  nouns  in  er  and  es  increase  e  long;  as,  Crater,  era • 
teris ;  magnes,  magnetis. 

I. 

4.  Increments  in  i,  of  the  third  declension  are  short. 

Exc.  1st.  Verbals  in  trix,  and  adjectives  in  ix  have  tlong;  as,  vie- 
trix,  victricis;  felix,fellcis. 

Also  cervix,  cicatrix,  cornix,  coturnix,  lodix,  matrix,  per- 
dix ,  phoenix,  radix,  and  vibex. 

Exc.  2d.  Greek  nouns  in  is  and  in,  with  the  genitive  in  - inis ,  in¬ 
crease  long;  as,  Salamis,  Salaminis. 

Exc.  3d.  Dis,  glis,  and  lis,  with  Nesis,  Quiris,  and  Samnis,  increase 
long. 

u. 

5.  Increments  in  u ,  of  the  third  declension,  are  short. 

Exc.  1st.  Genitives  in  udis,  uris,  and  ulis,  from  nominatives  in  us, 
have  the  increase  long;  as,  palus,  paludis,  &c.  But  Li- 
gus,  intercus,  and  pecus,  increase  with  ii  short. 

Exc.  2d.  Fur,frux,  lux,  and  Pollux,  have  u  long. 

Y. 

6.  Increments  in  y  are  short. 

Exc.  Greek  nouns  with  the  genitive  in  ynis,  have  the  increase  long. 
Also  Bombyx,  Ceyx,  and  gryps,  which  increase  long. 

INCREMENTS  OF  THE  PLURAL  NUMBER. 

A  noun  in  the  plural  number,  is  said  to  increase  when  it  has  more 
syllables  in  any  case,  than  in  the  nominative  plural. 

An  increment  in  the  plural,  can  occur  only  in  the  genitive  dative, 
and  ablative,  and  in  these,  it  is  the  syllable  next  to  the  last  When 
any  of  these  cases  has  no  more  syllables  than  the  nominative,  it  has 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY 


281 


§  168 


no  plural  increment.  Thus,  Sermonum ,  puZris,  capitum,  have  no  plu¬ 
ral  increase,  because  they  have  no  more  syllables  than  sermones ,  pu- 
8ri,  capita;  still,  they  all  have  the  increment  of  the  singular,  because 
they  have  more  syllables  than  sermo,  paer,  and  caput.  But  sermonl- 
bus ,  puerorum,  and  capitibus,  have  both  the  singular  and  plural  in¬ 
crement. 

Rule  XIII. Plural  increments  in  a,  e ,  and  o,  are  long— in 
it  and  u ,  short;  as, 

Musarum ,  rsrum,  virdrum,  partibus ,  lacubus. 

from  Musce,  res ,  viri,  partes ,  lacus. 

EXPLANATION. — All  the  increments  of  the  singular  remain  in 
the  plural,  and  to  these  the  plural  increment  is  added.  The  rule  here 
given  applies  to  the  plural  increments  only,  and  not  to  the  increments 
of  the  singular  in  the  plural.  Thus,  in  itintribus  from  iter,  the  se¬ 
cond  and  third  syllables  are  increments  of  the  singular,  to  be  found 
in  itinZris;  the  fourth  is  the  plural  increment,  which  comes  under 
this  rule. 


§  158.  INCREMENT  OF  VERBS. 

A  verb  is  said  to  increase  when  it  has  more  syllables  in  any  part, 
than  in  the  second  person  singular,  of  the  present  indicative,  active 
voice ;  as,  amas,  amatis,  amabatis,  &c. — A  verb  in  the  active  voice 
may  have  three  increments,  and  in  the  passive  four.  If  there  is  but 
one  increment,  it  is  the  syllable  next  the  last.  If  there  is  two,  the  se¬ 
cond  increment  is  the  syllable  next  the  last,  and  the  first  the  syllable 
preceding  that,  &c.  thus. 

1  1-2  123 

a-mas, — am-a-mus, — am-a-ba-mus, — am-av-er-a-mus,  &c 

The  increments  of  deponent  verbs,  are  determined  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  they  had  an  active  form. 

Rule  XIV.  In  the  increase  of  verbs,  a ,  e,  and  o,  are  long; 
if  and  u  short;  as, 

Jlmaremus ,  amatote;  legimus,  possinnus. 

Exceptions  in  A. 

1.  The  first  increment  of  do  is  short;  as,  damns,  ddbdmus,  d&rtmuSf 
&c 

Exceptions  in  E. 

2.  E  is  short  before  ram ,  rim  and  ro» 

But  when  contracted  by  syncope  it  is  long  ;  as,  Jltram  for  JUv9* 
ram 


24* 


282  PROSODY. - QUANTITY.  §  159 

3.  In  the  third  conjugation  e  is  short  before  r  in  the  first 
increase  of  the  present  and  imperfect ;  as, 

LegSre,  legtrem,  Act.  LegSreris,  legSrere,  Icgtre,  Pass. 

4.  In  the  first  and  second  conjugation  e  is  short  in — berzs 
and — here. 

Note — erunt  and  -ere  in  the  perfect  come  under  the  general  rule  ; 
sometimes  they  are  shortened.  §  166.  5. 

Exceptions  in  I. 

5.  In  preterite  tenses  i  is  long  before  v;  as, 

Audivi,  audlveram ,  audiverim ,  See. 

6.  In  the  first  increase  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  except 
-iznus  of  the  perfect,  i  not  before  a  vowel  is  always  long  ;  as, 

Pres,  venimus;  Perf.  venimus.  So,  also,  ibam ,  and  ibo,  from  eo. 

7.  /is  long  in  simus ,  sitis,  velimus,velitis;  and  their  com¬ 
pounds;  as,  posszmus ,  rioTimits ,  &c. 

8.  In  rimus,  and  ritis  of  the  Future  perfect  indicative  and 
perfect  subjunctive,  i  is  common;  as, 

DixSrivius,  or  dixSrimus;  videritis,  or  videritis. 

Note. — ?71ong  before  turn  of  the  supine  comes  under  Rule  VIII. 
and  IX.  It  is  also  long  in  the  penult  of  the  perfect  participle  by  the 
same  rules  as  the  perfect  participle  is  always  derived  from  the  supine. 


§  159.  QUANTITY  OF  PENULT  SYLLABLES. 

For  the  quantity  of  penult  syllables  no  definite  rule  can  be  given 
which  is  not  rendered  nearly  useless  by  the  number  of  exceptions  oc¬ 
curring  under  it.  The  following  observations  are  usually  given  rather 
as  a  general  guide,  than  certain  rules,  and  they  might  be  easily  ex¬ 
tended  were  it  of  any  practical  advantage. 

1.  Patronymics  in  IDES  or  ABES  usually  shorten  the 
penult;  as, 

Priamldes,  jltlantiades,  &c.  Unless  they  come  from  nouns  in  eus; 
as,  Pelides ,  Tydides,  &c. 

2.  Patronymics,  and  similar  words,  in  AIS ,  EIS ,  ITIS , 
O/S,  OTIS,  INE ,  and  ONE  commonly  lengthen  the  pe¬ 
nult  ;  as, 

Jlchais ,  Ptolemais ,  Ohryseis,  JEneis,  Memphitis,  Latois,  Icaridtiz 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


283 


§  159 


Nerine,  Acrisione.  Except  Thebais,  and  Phocais  short ;  and  Nereis t 
which  is  common. 

3.  Adjectives  in  ACUS,  ICUS ,  IDUS,  and  IMUS,  for 
the  most  part  shorten  the  penult ;  as, 

JEgyptidcus,  academicus ,  lepidus ,  legit  imus :  also  superlatives;  as, 
fortissimus,  &c.  Except  opdcus,  amicus ,  apricus,  pudicus,  mendicus, 
auticus ,  posticus,  fidus ,  infidus,  (but  pcrfidus,  of  per  and  fides,  is 
short,)  bimus,  quadrimus ,  patrimus,  matrimus,  opimus  ;  and  the  two 
superlatives,  imus,  and  primus. 

4.  Adjectives  in  ALPS,  ANUS ,  ARUS,  IVUS ,  ORUS , 
OSUS ,  lengthen  the  penult ;  as, 

Dotalis,  urbanus,  avdrus.  cestivus ,  decorus,  arendsus.  Except  bar - 
bdrus,  opiparus. 

5.  Verbal  adjectives  in ILIS  shorten  the  penult ;  as,  agilis , 
fadlis ,  &c.  But  derivatives  from  nouns  usually  lengthen 
it  3  as. 

Anilis,  civilis ,  herilis,  &cc.  To  these  add,  exilis,  subtilis ;  and 
names  of  months,  Aprilis,  Quinctilis,  Sextilis :  Except  humilis,  pari - 
lis  ;  and  also  smiths.  But  all  adjectives  in  atilis  are  short;  as, 
versatilis ,  volatilis,  umbratilis ,  plicatilis,  Jluviatilis;  saxaiilis ,  See. 

6.  Adjectives  in  INUS ,  derived  from  words  denoting 
inanimate  things,  as  plants,  stones,  &c.  also  from  adverbs  of 
time,  commonly  shorten  the  penult ;  as, 

Amar acinus,  crocinus,  cedrinus,  faginus,  oleaginus  •  adamantinus, 
crystallinus,  crastinus,  pristinus ,  perendinus.  carinus.  annoiinus,  8tc. 

Other  adjectives  in  INUS  are  long;  as, 

Agninus,  caninus,  Icporinus  binus.  trinus  quinus,  austrinus.  clan 
destinus,  Latinus ,  marinus,  supinus,  vespertinus,  &c. 

7.  Diminutives  in  OLUS ,  OLA,  OLUM ;  and  ULUS} 
ULA,  ULUM,  always  shorten  the  penult;  as, 

Urceolus,  JHiola,  musceolum  ;  lectulus,  ratiuncula,  corculum.  See. 

8.  Adverbs  in  TIM  lengthen  the  penult ;  as, 

Oppidatim,  viritim,  tributim.  Except  affdtim.  perpHim,  and  statin u 

9.  Desideratives  in  URIO  shorten  the  antepenult,  which 
in  the  second  and  third  person  is  the  penult ;  as, 

Esurio,  esuris,  esurit.  But  other  verbs  in  uno  lengthen  that  sylla 
ble  ;  as,  ligurio.  liguris ;  scaturio ,  scaturis ,  Sec. 


284 


PKOSODY. - QUANTITY. 


§  159 


PENULT  OF  PROPER  NAMES. 

The  following  proper  names  lengthen  the  penult :  Abdera,  Abydus, 
Adonis,  iEsopus,  ZEtolus,  Ahala,  Alarlcus,  Alcides,  Amyclas,  Andro- 
nlcus,  Anitbis,  Archimedes,  Ariariithes,  Ariobarzanes,  Aristides, 
Aristobulus,  Aristoglton,  Arplnum,  Artabanus  :  Brachmanes,  BusI- 
ris,  Buthrotus  ;  Cethegus,  Chalcedon,  Cleobulus,  Cyrene,  Cythera, 
Curetes  j  Darlci,  Demonlcus,  Diomedes,  Diores,  Dioscuri  j  Ebudes, 
Eriphyle,  Eubulus,  Euclides,  Euphrates, Eumedes,  Euripus,  Euxinus, 
Garganus,  Gaetulus,  Granicus  ;  Heliogabalus,  Henricus,  Heraclides, 
Heraclitus,  Hipponax,  Hispanus  j  Irene  ;  Lacydas,  Latona,  Leucata, 
Lugdunum,  Lycoras  ;  Mandane,  Mausolus,  Maximinus,  Meleager, 
Messala,  Messana,  Miletus ;  Naslca,  Nicanor,  Nicetas ;  Pachy- 
nus,  Pandora,  Peloris  <§'  -us,  Pharsalus,  Phoenice,  Polites,  Poly- 
cletus,  Polynlces,  Priapus,  Sardanapalus,  Sarpedon,  Serapis,  Sinope, 
Stratonlce,  Suffetes  ;  Tigranes,  Thessalonica  ;  Verona,  Veronica. 

The  following  are  short :  Amathus,  Amphipolis,  Anabasis,  Anti- 
cyra,  Antigonus,  -ne,  Antilochus,  Antiochus,  Antiopa,  Antlpas, 
Antipater,  Antiphanes,  Antiphates,  Antiphila,  Antiphon,  Anytus, 
Apulus,  Areopagus,  Ariminum,  Armen  us,  Athesis,  Attalus,  Attica  ; 
Biturix,  Bructeri  •  Calaber,  Callicrates,  Callistratus,  Candace,  Can- 
taber,  Carnehdes,  Cherllus,  Chrysostomus,  Cleombrotus,  Cleomenes, 
Corycos,  Constantinopolis,  Craterus,  Cratylus,  Cremera,  Crustumeri, 
Cybele,  Cyclades,  Cyzlcus  ;  Dalmatae,  Damocles,  Dardanus,  Dejoces, 
Dejolarus,  Democritus,  Demlpho,  Didymus,  Diogenes,  Drepanum, 
Dumnorix  ;  Empedocles,  Ephesus,  Evergetes,  Eumenes,  Eur“ymedon, 
Euripylus  ;  Fuclnus  ;  Geryones,  Gyarus  ;  Hecyra,  Helipolis,  Hermi- 
one,  Herodotus^  Hesiodus,  Hesione,  Hippocrates,  Hippotamos, 
Hypata,  Hypanis  ;  Icarus,  Icetas,  Illyris,  Iphltus,  Ismarus,  Itha¬ 
ca  ;  Laodlce,  Laomedon,  Lampsacus,  Lamyrus,  Laplthse,  Lucre- 
tllis,  Libanus,  Lipare  or  -a,  Lysimachus,  Longimanus  :  Marathon, 
Msenalus,  Marmarica,  Massagetce,  Matrona,  Megara,  Melltus  §  -ta, 
Metropolis,  Mutina,  Miconus  ;  Neocles,  Nerltos,  Norlcum  •  Omphale; 
Patara,  Pegasus,  Pharnaces,  Pisistratus,  Polydamus;  Polyxena,  Por- 
sena  or  Porsenna,  Praxiteles,  Puteoli,  Pylades,  Pythagoras  ;  Sarma- 
tae,  Sarslna,  Semele,  Semiramis,  Sequani  «§r-a,  Sisyphus,  Sicoris,  Socra¬ 
tes,  Sodoma,  Sotades,  Spartacus,  Sporades,  Strongyle,  Stymphalus, 
Sybaris;  Taygetus,  Telegonus,  Telemachus,  Tenedos.  Tarraco,  Theo- 
phanes,  Theophllus,  Tomyris  ;  Urblcus  ;  Veneti,  Vologesus,  Volusus  ; 
Xencrates  ;  Zollus,  Zopyrus. 

The  penult  of  several  words  is  doubtful ;  thus,  Batavi.  Lucan. 
Batavi.  Juv.  &  Mart.  Fortuitus.  Hor.  Fortuitas.  Martial.  Some  make 
fortuities  of  three  syllables,  but  it  may  be  shortened  like  gratuities . 
Stat.  Patrimus ,  matrimus,  prcestolor,  &c.  are  by  some  lengthened, 
and  by  some  shortened  j  but  for  their  quantity  there  is  no  certain  au¬ 
thority. 


§  160.  FINAL  SYLLABLES. 

A  final. 

Rule  XV.  A  in  the  end  of  a  word  declined  by  cases  is 
short  j  as,  Musa,  templa,  &c. 


PftOSODY. - QUANTITY. 


285 


§160 

Exc  1.  The  ablative  of  the  first  declension  is  long  ;  as,  Musa,  &c. 

Exc.  2.  The  vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  is  long  ;  as,  0  JEnea , 
0  Pallet. 

Rule  XVI.  A  in  the  end  of  a  word  not  declined  by  cases 
is  long;  as,  Amd,  frustrd,  ergd ,  intrd ,  &c. 

Exc.  ltd,  quid,  eja,  posted,  puta.  (adv.)  are  short ;  Sometimes 
also  the  prepositions  contra,  and  ultra ;  and  the  compounds  of 
-ginta  as  trigintd,  &c.  But  contra  and  ultra,  as  adverbs,  are  al¬ 
ways  long. 

E  final. 

Rule  XVII.  E  in  the  end  of  a  word  is  short ;  as,  Nate . 
sedile ,  ipse,  posse ,  nempe ,  ante . 

Special  Rules  and  Exceptions. 

Rule  1.  Monosyllables  in  e  are  long;  as,  me,  te,  sS. 

Exc.  The  enclitics  qud,  vd,  nd,  are  short ;  also  ptd,  cd,  td. 

Rule  2.  Nouns  of  the  first  and  fifth  declension  have  final 
e  long ;  as,  Calliope,  Anchise ,  die,  &c. 

Also  Greek  neuter  plurals  -,  as,  Cete,  mele,  Tempe ,  See. 

Rule  3.  Verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  have  e  long 
in  the  second  person  singular  of  the  imperative  active ;  as, 
Doce ,  mane,  &c.  But  cave,  vale,  and  vide  are  sometimes 
short. 

Rule  4.  Adverbs  from  adjectives  of  the  first  and  se¬ 
cond  declension  have  final  e  long  ;  as,  placide ,  pulchre,  valde , 
(contracted  for  valide.)  So  also  ferme,  fere,  and  ohe. 

Exc.  But  bend,  maid,  infernd,  and  supernd  are  short. 

I  final. 

Rule  XVIII.  I  final  is  long ;  as,  domim,  fill,  &c. 

Exc.  1.  I  final  is  common  in  mihi,  tibi,  sibi ;  also  in  ibi,  ubit 
nisi,  quasi.  Sometimes  uti  and  cui  as  a  dissyllable  have  i  short. 
Sicuti,  sicubi ,  and  necubl  are  always  short. 

Exc.  2.  /final  is  short  in  Greek  vocatives  and  datives  ;  as,  Alexi% 
Daphni ;  Palladl,  T roast,  and  Troasin. 

O  final 

Rule  XIX.  O  final  is  common ;  as,  Virgo,  amo,  quando . 

Exc.  1.  Monosyllables  in  o  are  long;  as,  O,  do,  std,  pro • 


286  PROSODY. —  QUANTITY.  §160 

Exc.  2.  The  dative  and  ablative  in  o  are  long ;  as,  libi  d 
domino .  Also  Greek  nouns  in  o  ;  as,  Didd,  Sapphd. 

Exc.  3.  Ablatives  used  as  adverbs  have  o  long  ;  as,  certd}  falso, 
pauld  y  quo ,  eo,  and  their  compounds  ,;  illo ,  idcirco ,  citro ,  retro , 
ultro,  ergo,  (for  the  sake  of.) 

Exc.  4.  Ego,  scio,  the  defective  verb  cedd;  also  homti,  citd,  illicd. 
immo,  duo,  ambd,  modo,  and  its  compounds  quomftdb,  dummddti, 
postmodb,  are  almost  always  short. 

Exc.  5.  The  gerund  in  do  is  long  in  Virgil,  in  other  poets  mostly 
short. 

U  and  Y,  final. 

Rule  XX.  U  final  is  long ;  Y  final  is  short,  as  vultU ,  Moly. 

B,  D,  L,  M,  R,  T,  final , 

Rule  XXI.  B,  D,  L,  R  and  T,  in  the  end  of  a  word  are 
short;  as,  db ,  apud ,  semel ,  consul ,  pater ,  caput. 

EXPLANATION. — This  rule  does  not  apply,  if  any  of  these  final 
letters  are  preceded  by  a  diphthong,  or  if  the  syllable  is  contracted, 
or  made  long  by  position  ;  as,  aut,  abit  for  abiit,  amant. 

Exc.  1.  Sal,  sol,  and  nil  are  long. 

Exc.  2.  Aer,  &  cether,  are  long.  Also  nouns  in  er  which  hav( 
•eris  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  Crater ,  Iber,  & c. 

Exc.  3.  Far,  lar,  Nar,  par,  cur ,  and  fur,  are  long. 

Exc.  4.  The  Hebrew  names  Job,  Daniel,  are  long  ;  but  David  and 
Bogud  are  common. 

Obs.  il/final  anciently  made  the  preceding  vowel  short,  as  Militum 
octo.  By  later  poets  it  is  usually  cut  off,  by  Echthlipsis,  (§  166.  2.) 

when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel.  When  not  so  cut  off,  it  is 
short. 

C,  N,  final. 

Rule  XXII.  C  and  N  in  the  end  of  a  word  are  long ;  as, 

ac,  sicpUuc ,  en ,  non,  & c. 

Exc.  1.  Nec  and  donee  are  short;  hie  and  fac,  common. 

Exc.  2.  Forsitan,  hi,  forsan,  tamen,  an,  viden,  are  short. 

Exc.  3.  En  having  -inis  in  the  genitive  is  short ;  as,  carman,  car • 
minis.  Also  Greek  nouns  in  an,  on,  in,  yn,  originally  short,  and 
the  dative  plural  in  sin  have  the  final  syllable  short ;  as,  Ilidn,  Era • 
tion ,  Maian,  Alexin,  chelyn,  Troasin,  &c. 

As,  Es,  Os,  final. 

Rule  XXIII.  As,  Es,  Os,  in  the  end  of  a  word  are  long ; 
as,  Mas,  quits,  bonds 


PROSODY. - QUANTITY. 


287 


§  161 


Exc.  1.  As  is  short  in  anas  and  Greek  nouns  which  have  -adis  or 
- ados  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  Areas ,  lampas,  See. 

Exc.  2.  Es  is  short,  1st  in  nouns  and  adjectives  which  increase 
short  in  the  genitive  ;  as,  hospSs ,  limSs,  hebSs.  But  Ceres,  paries t 
aries ,  abies,  and  pes,  with  its  compounds  are  long.  2d.  Es  from 
sum,  and  penSs  are  short.  3d.  Greek  neuters  in  es,  and  nominatives 
and  vocatives  of  the  third  declension  which  increase  in  the  genitive 
otherwise  than  in  eos,  have  es  short ;  as,  Arcades,  TroSs,  &cc. 

Exc.  3.  Os  is  short  in  compos,  impos,  os,  ( ossis ,) — in  Greek 
words  of  the  second  declension,  and  in  neuters  and  genitives  of  the 
third  3  as,  llios,  Tyros,  chaos,  epos,  Pallados,  &c. 

Is,  Us,  Ys,  final. 

Rule  XXIV.  Is,  us  and  ys,  in  the  end  of  a  word  are  short ; 
as,  Turris ,  legts,  legimus ,  Capys. 

Exc.  1.  Plural  cases  in  is  and  us  are  long  ;  but  the  dative 
and  ablative  in  bus  are  short. 

Exc.  2%  Nouns  in  is  with  the  genitive  in  itis,  inis,  or  entis  are 
long  ;  as  Samnis,  Salamis,  Simois. 

Exc.  3.  Is  is  long  in  glis,  vis,  gratis,  foris.  And  in  the  second 
Pers.  Sing.  Pres.  Ind.  Active  of  the  fourth  conjugation  as  audis. 

Also  in  fis,  is,  sis,  vis,  velis,  and  their  compounds  possis,  quamvis} 
malis ,  nolis,  Sec. 

Exc.  4.  Monosyllables  in  -us  are  long ;  as,  grus,  sus.  &c. 

Also  those  which  have  uris,  udis,  utis,  untis,  or  odis,  in  the  geni 
tive ;  as,  iellfis,  incus,  virtus,  Amathus,  tripus.  To  these  add 
Greek  genitives  in  us  j  as,  Didus,  Sapphus,  See. 

Exc.  5.  Tethys  is  sometimes  long,  likewise  nouns  in  ys,  which 
have  also  yn  in  the  nominative,-  as,  Phorcys  or  Phorcyn. 


§  161  QUANTITY  OF  DERIVATIVES  AND  COM¬ 
POUNDS. 


Rule  XXV.  Derivatives  follow  the  quantity  of  their 
primitives  ;  as, 


Amicus, 

Auctionor, 

Auctoro, 

Auditor, 

Ausplcor, 

Cauponor, 

Competitor, 

Cornicor, 

Custodio, 

Decorus, 


from  amo. 

auctio,  -onis. 
auctor,  -oris, 
auditum. 
auspex,  -Icis. 
caupo,  -onis. 
competltum. 
cornix,  -Icis. 
custos,  -odis. 
decor,  -oris. 


Decoro,  from  decus,  -oris. 


Exulo, 

Pavldus 

Quirlto, 

Radlcltus, 

Sosplto, 

Natura, 

Maternus, 

Legebam,  fyc. 

Legeram,  fyc. 


exul,  -ulis. 
paveo, 
Quiris,  -Itis. 
radix,  -Icis. 
sospes,  -Itis. 
natus. 
mater, 
lego, 
legi. 


288 


PllO  SO  BY. - QUA  NTITY. 


§161 


EXCEPTIONS. 

1.  Long  from  Short. 

Deni,  from,  decem.  Susplcio,  jfrom  susplcor.  Mobllis,  from  mbveo. 

Pomes,  foveo.  Sedes,  sedeo.  Humor,  humus. 

Humanus,  homo.  Secius,  secus.  Jumentum,  juvo. 

Regula,  rego.  Penuria,  penus.  Vox,  vocis,  voco,  §c 


2.  Short  from  Long. 


Arena  and  arista,  from 

areo. 

Nota  and  nolo, 

notus. 

Vadum, 

vado. 

Fldes, 

fldo. 

Sopor, 1 

sopio. 

Lilcerna,  from  luceo. 
Dux,  -ucis,  duco. 

Stabllis,  stabam. 

Dltio,  dis,  dltis, 

Quasillus,  qualus,  fyc 


EXPLANATION. — This  rule  applies  to  all  those  parts  of  the 
verb  derived  or  formed  from  the  primary  parts,  §  51,  and  52,  i.  e. 
the  quantity  of  the  primary  part  remains  in  all  the  parts  formed 
from  it. 


Rule  XXVI.  Compounds  follow  the  quantity  of  the  sim¬ 
ple  words  which  compose  them  5  as, 

Addmo,  from  ad  and  amo  ;  d  'tduco ,  from  de  and  duco. 

Ohs.  1.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  in  forming  the  com¬ 
pound,  does  not  alter  its  quantity  ;  as,  cado,  concido;  ccedo,  concido; 
claudo ,  recludo;  cequus ,  iniquus,  he. 

Obs.  2.  When  a  short  syllable  in  the  first  part  of  the  compound 
ends  with  a  consonant,  it  becomes  long  by  position  when  joined  to 
another  word  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  as,  permaneo  from  per 
and  maneo  \  but  if  the  second  word  begin  with  a  vowel,  the  first  re¬ 
tains  its  quantity;  as,  pSrambulo,  from  pSr  and  ambulo. 

Obs.  3.  When  the  second  part  of  a  compound  word  begins  with  a 
vowel,  the  vowel  ending  the  first  part  is  short  by  Rule  I.  When  it 
begins  with  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant,  the  vowel  pre¬ 
ceding  is  long  by  Rule  II.  But  if  it  begins  with  a  simple  consonant 
followed  by  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  the  vowel  preceding  is  sometimes 
long,  and  sometimes  short  by  the  following 


Special  Rules  for  the  first  part  of  a  compound ,  end¬ 
ing  with  a  vowel. 

Rule  1*  The  first  part  of  a  compound,  if  a  preposition 
of  one  syllable,  has  the  final  vowel  long ;  as,  decido ,  _prd- 
tendo. 

Exc.  1.  Pro  is  short  in  prbcella,  prof  anus,  profari,  profedo ,  pr5- 
festus,  prfificiscor,  prbfiteor ,  profugio,  profugus,  profundus,  prone • 
pos,  prbneptis,  propero,  and  protervus.  It  is  common  in  procuro, 
profundo,  propdgo,  propello,  propino,  propulso. 


PROSODY. —  QUANTITY. 


289 


§  161 


Exc.  2.  The  Greek  pro  (before,)  is  always  short;  as,  propheia , 
prologus. 

Note. — The  final  vowel  of  a  preposition  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
retains  its  own  quantity  ;  as,  contradico,  antbcedo. 

Rule  2.  The  inseparable  prepositions  se  and  di  are  long; 
re  short ;  as,  Sepo?io,  divello ,  repello. 

Exc.  3.  Di  is  short  in  dirimo  and  disertus .  Re  is  long 
in  refert. 

Rule  3.  The  first  part  of  a  compound,  not  a  preposition, 
has  final  a  long ;  e ,  z,  o,  u ,  and  y  short ;  as, 

Mdlo,  ncfas ,  biceps ,  philosophus ,  ducenti,  Polydorus. 

Exc.  1.  A.  In  quasi ,  cadem ,  notin  the  ablative,  andinsome  Greek 
compounds,  a  is  short. 

Exc.  2.  E.  The  e  is  long  in  nemo ,  nequam,ne  quando ,  nequaquam , 
nequidquam,  nequis ,  nequitia;  memet ,  mecum ,  tecum,  secum ,  vecors, 
vesanus ,  veneficus.  Also  in  words  compounded  with  se  for  sex,  or 
semi;  as,  sedecim ,  semestris ,  &c.  E  is  common  in  some  compounds 
of  facio;  as,  liquefacio,  patefacio,  rarefacio,  &c. 

Exc.  3.  I.  When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  is  declined,  t  is  long; 
as,  quidam,  quilibet,  reipublicce,  tk c.  or  when  the  first  can  be  separat¬ 
ed  from  tne  last,  and  yet  both  retain  their  form  and  meaning;  as,  lu - 
di-magister ,  lucrl-facio,  sl-quis,  agri-cultura,  &c. 

J  is  sometimes  made  long  by  contraction;  as,  6?gcE,  scilicet ,  bimus. 
&c.  for  bijugce,  scire  licet ,  annus ,  or  biennius.  It  is  also  long  in 

(masculine)  ubique ,  utrobique ,  ibidem ,  nimirum,  and  the  com¬ 
pounds  of  (fie.?,  such  as,  biduum ,  pridie ;  meridies ,  See.  In  ubicunque 
and  ubivis,  it  is  common. 

jExc.  4.  O.  Conlro,  intro ,  retro,  and  quando,  in  compounds  have 
the  final  o  long;  as,  controversia,  introduco,  retrocedo,  quando que , 
(except  quando quidem.) 

O  is  long  in  compounds  of  9110;  as,  quomodo,  quocunque ,  quominus , 
quocirca,  quovis,  qubque ,  (from  quisque-)  but  in  quoque,  the  conjunction, 
it  is  short. 

jE;rc.  5.  U.  Jupiter,  judex,  and  judicium  have  w  long;  also  usuca - 
pio,  and  usuvenio,  being  capable  of  separation  as  in  .E:rc.  3. 

Rule  XXVII.  The  last  syllable  of  every  verse  js  common. 

EXPLANATION. — This  means  that  a  short  syllable  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  if  the  verse  requires  it,  is  considered  long;  and  a  long  sylla¬ 
ble,  if  the  verse  requires  it,  is  considered  short. 

N.  B.  A  syllable  which  does  not  come  under  any  of  the 
preceding  rules,  is  said  to  be  long,  or  short,  by  “  authority,” 
viz:  of  the  poets. 


25 


290 


PROSODY. - VERSIFICATION. 


§  162 


§  162.  VERSIFICATION. 

A  verse  is  a  certain  number  of  long  and  short  syllables,  disposed 
according  to  rule.  The  parts  into  which  a  verse  is  divided  are  called 
Feet. 

OF  FEET. 


A  foot  in  metre,  is  composed  of  two  or  more  syllables,  strictly  re¬ 
gulated  by  time,  and  is  either  simple  or  compound.  The  simple  feet 
are  twelve  in  number,  of  which  four  consist  of  two,  and  eight  of 
three  syllables.  There  are  sixteen  compound  feet,  each  of  four  syl¬ 
lables.  These  varieties  are  as  follows: 


Simple  feet  of  two  Syllables. 


Pyrrhic 

Spondee 

Iambus 

Trochee 


as  Deds. 
as  fundunt. 
as  erant. 
as  arms.. 


Simple  feet  of  three  Syllables. 


Tribrach 

Molossus 

Dactyl 

Anaprest 

Bacchius 

Antibacchius 

Amphibrach 

Amphimacer 


as  facerS. 
as  contendunt. 
as  corpora, 
as  domlnl, 
as  doldres. 
as  Romanos, 
as  honore. 
as  charltas. 


Compound  feet  of  four  Syllables. 


Choriambus 
Antispastus 
Ionic  a  majore 
Ionic  a  minore 
First  Paeon 
Second  Paeon 
Third  Paeon 
Fourth  Paeon 
First  Epitrite 
Second  Epitrite 
Third  Epitrite 
Fourth  Epitrite 
Proceleusmaticus 
Dispondee 
Diiambus  ’ 
Ditrochee 


pontlf  Ices  Trochee  and  Iambus, 
hmabatls  Iambus  and  Trochee 
calcarlbus  Spondee  and  Pyrrhic, 
prbpera bant  Pyrrhic  and  Spondee, 
temporlbus  Trochee  and  Pyrrhic, 
potentla  Iambus  and  Pyrrhic, 

anlmatus  Pyrrhic  and  Trochee, 

celerltas  Pyrrhic  and  Iambus, 

voluptates  Iambus  and  Spondee. ' 

condltores  Trochee  and  Spondee 
dlscordlas  Spondee  and  Iambus, 
adduxistls  Spondee  and  Trochee 
homlnlbCis  Two  Pyrrhics, 
oratores  Two  Spondees. 
Smaverant  Two  Iambi. 

Cantilena.  Two  Trochees 


PROSODY. - VERSIFICATION. 


291 


§  162 


ISOCHRONOUS  FEET. 


1.  In  every  foot,  a  long  syllable  is  equal  in  time  to  two  short  ones. 
To  constitute  feet  Isochronous,  two  things  are  necessary.  1st.  That 
they  have  the  same  time;  2d.  that  they  be  interchangeable  in  metre. 

2.  Feet  have  the  same  time  which  are  measured  by  an  equal  num¬ 
ber  of  short  syllables;  thus,  the  Spondee,  Dactyl,  Anapaest,  and  Pro- 
celeusmaticus,  have  the  same  time,  each  being  equal  to  four  short 
syllables. 

3.  Feet  are  interchangeable  in  metre,  when  the  ictus  or  stress  of 
the  voice  falls,  or  may  fall,  on  the  same  portion  of  the  foot.  The 
part  of  the  foot  that  receives  the  ictus,  is  called  arsis,  or  elevation, 
the  rest  of  the  foot  is  termed  thesis,  or  depression. 

4.  The  natural  place  of  the  arsis,  is  the  long  syllable  of  the  foot. 
Hence,  in  the  Iambus,  it  falls  on  the  second  syllable,  and  in  the  Tro¬ 
chee,  on  the  first.  Its  place  in  the  Spondee  and  Tribrach  cannot  be  de¬ 
termined  by  the  feet  themselves,  each  syllable  being  of  the  same 
length. 


5.  In  all  kinds  of  verse,  the  fundamental  foot  determines  the  place 
of  the  arsis  for  the  other  feet  admitted  into  it,  thus:  In  Dactylic 
verse,  and  Trochaic  verse,  the  Spondee  will  have  the  arsis  on  the  first 
syllable; — in  Anapaestic,  and  Iambic,  on  the  last.  In  Trochaic 
verse,  the  tribrach  will  have  the  arsis  on  the  first  syllable,  S  w 
in  Iambic  on  the  second, 


6.  Those  feet,  then,  according  to  the  ancients,  were  called  isochro - 
nous,  which  were  capable  of  being  divided  into  parts  that  were  equal 
in  time,  so  that  a  short  syllable  should  correspond  to  a  short;  and  a 
long,  to  a  long,  or  to  two  short;  thus:  in  Iambic  and  Trochaic  verse, 


Iambus 

Tribrach 


_/ 

/ 


In  Dactylic  and  Anapaestic;  thus, 
Dactyl  _/ 

Spondee 


Trochee 

Tribrach 

Anapaest 

Spondee 


/ 


/ 


But  feet  which  cannot  be  divided  in  this  manner,  are  not  isochro¬ 
nous,  though  they  have  the  same  time  ;  thus,  the  Iambus  and  Trochee , 
though  equal  in  time,  cannot  be  divided  so  as  to  have  the  correspond 
ing  parts  of  equal  length.  Thus, 

Iambus,  w 
Trochee,  _  / 


292 


PRO  S  O  DY. METRE. 


§  163 

lienee  these  feet  are  not  interchangeable,  or  isochronous;  and  for 
this  reason  a  Trochee  is  never  admitted  into  Iambic  verse  nor  an 

Iambus  into  Trochaic.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Spondee,  ( - )  and 

Amphibrach,  (  ^  )  a'nd  of  the  Amphibrach  with  the  Dactyl  or 

Anapaest. 


§  163.  OF  METRE. 

1.  Metre,  in  its  general  sense,  means  an  arrangement  of  syllables  and 
feet  in  verse,  according  to  certain  rules  ;  and  in  this  sense  applies, 
not  only  to  an  entire  verse,  but  to  part  of  a  verse,  or  to  any  number 
of  verses.  A  metre ,  in  a  specific  sense ,  means  a  combination  of  two 
feet  (sometimes  called  a  syzygy)  and  sometimes  one  foot  only. 

The  distinction  between  rhythm  and  metre  is  this  : — the  former 
refers  to  the  time  only,  in  regard  to  which,  two  short  syllables 
are  equivalent  to  one  long  ;  the  latter  refers  both  to  the  time  and  the 
order  of  the  syllables.  The  rhythm  of  an  anapaest  and  dactyl  is  the 
same  ;  the  metre  different.  The  term  rhythm,  is  also  understood  in  a 
more  comprehensive  sense,  and  is  applied  to  the  harmonious  con¬ 
struction  and  enunciation  of  feet  and  words  in  connection  ;  thus,  a 
line  has  rhythm  when  it  contains  any  number  of  metres  of  equal  time, 
without  regard  to  their  order.  Metre  requires  a  certain  number  of  me¬ 
tres,  and  these  arranged  in  a  certain  order.  Thus,  in  this  line, 

Panditur  interea  domus  omnipotentis  Olympi, 

there  is  both  rhythm  (as  it  contains  six  metres  of  equal  value  in  re¬ 
spect  of  time)  and  metre,  as  these  metres  are  arranged  according  to 
the  canon  for  Hexameter  heroic  verse,  which  requires  a  dactyl  in  thft 
5th,  and  a  spondee  in  the  6th  place.  Change  the  order  thus, 

Omnipotentis  Olympi  panditur  interea  domus, 

and  the  rhythm  remains  as  perfect  as  before,  but  tl  e  metre  is  de¬ 
stroyed  ;  it  is  no  longer  a  Hexameter  heroic  line. 

2.  The  principal  metres  used  in  Latin  poetry  are  six  ;  namely, 
1.  Iambic.  2.  Trochaic.  3.  Anapaestic.  4.  Dactylic.  5.  Choriam- 
bic.  6.  Ionic.  These  are  so  called  from  the  foot  which  prevails  in 
them. 

These  different  kinds  of  verse  in  certain  varieties  are  also  de¬ 
signated  by  the  names  of  certain  poets,  who  either  invented 
them,  or  made  special  use  of  them  in  their  writings.  Thus,  we  have 
Asclepiadic,  Glyconian,  Alcaic,  Sapphic,  Pherecratian,  &c.  from  As- 
clepiades,  Glycon,  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Pherecrates,  &c. 

3.  In  Iambic,  Trochaic,  and  Anapaestic  verse,  a  metre  consists  of 
two  feet,  (sometimes  called  a  dipodia  or  syzygy,)  in  the  other  kinds 
of  one  foot. 

4.  Averse  consisting  of  one  metre  is  called  Monometer;  of  two 
metres,  Dimeter ;  of  three,  Trimeter',  of  four,  Tetrameter ;  of  five, 
Pentameter ;  of  six,  Hexameter ;  of  seven,  Heptameter  ;  &c.  Hence, 
in  Trochaic,  Iambic,  and  Anapaestic  verse,  a  monometer  will  contain 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


293 


§  163 


two  feet ;  a  dimeter,  four  ;  a  trimeter,  six  ;  &c.  in  the  other  kinds  of 
verse,  a  monometer  contains  one  foot,  a  dimeter,  two ,  a  trimeter. 
three ,  &c. 

5.  A  verse  or  line  of  any  metre  may  be  complete,  having  precisely 
the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  that  the  canon  requires  ;  or,  it  may 
be  deficient  ;  or,  it  may  be  redundant.  To  express  this,  a  verse  is  va¬ 
riously  characterized  as  follows  ;  viz. 

1.  Acatalectic,  when  complete. 

2.  Cataledic ,  if  wanting  one  syllable. 

3.  Br  achy  cataledic,  if  wanting  two  syllables  or  a  foot. 

4.  Hyper  cataledic,  or  hypermeter ,  when  it  has  one  or  two  syllables 
more  than  the  verse  requires. 

5.  Acephalous ,  when  a  syllable  is  wanting  at  the  beginning  of  the 
line. 

6.  Asynartete,  when  different  measures  are  conjoined  in  one  line. 

Hence,  in  order  fully  to  describe  any  verse,  three  terms  are  employ¬ 
ed  ;  the  first  expressing  the  kind  of  verse  ;  the  second,  the  number 
of  metres  ;  and  the  third  the  character  of  the  line  ;  thus, 

Non  vul-  |  tus  in-  [|  stantis  |  tyran-  ||  ni  | 

is  described  ;  as,  Iambic ,  dimeter ,  hyper  cataledic. 

6.  Verses  or  parts  of  verses  are  farther  designated  by  a  term  ex- 
pressivq^of  the  number  of  feet,  or  parts  of  feet,  which  they  contain. 
Thus,  a  line  or  part  of  a  line  containing 

three  half  feet  is  called  trimimer, 
five  half  feet,  “  penthemimer , 

seven  half  feet,  “  hephthemimer. 

These  are  of  use  to  point  out  the  place  of 

THE  CiESURAL  PAUSE. 

7.  Ccesura  in  metre  is  the  separation,  by  the  ending  of  a  word,  of 
syllables  rhythmically  or  metrically  connected. 

It  is  of  three  kinds,  1.  Of  the  foot :  2.  of  the  rhythm:  3.  of  the 
verse. 

1st.  Caesura  of  the  foot  occurs  when  a  word  ends  before  a  foot  is 
completed  ;  as  in  the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  feet  of  the  follow¬ 
ing  line  ; 

SHves-  I  trem  tenu-  J  I  Mu-  j  sam  medl-  |  tarls  a-  |  vena 

2d.  Caesura  of  the  rhythm  is  the  separation  of  the  arsis  from  the 
thesis  by  the  ending  of  a  word,  as  in  the  second,  third  and  fourth  feet 
of  the  preceding  line. 

This  has  sometimes  the  effect  of  making  a  final  short  syllable  long, 
by  the  force  of  the  ictus;  as, 

Petorl  |  bus  Inhl-  |  ans  spi-  |  rantlS.  |  consullt  J  extil. 

Note. — This  effect  is  not  produced  by  the  Caesura  of  the  foot,  nor  of  the  verse, 
unless  they  happen  to  coincide  with  the  caesura  of  the  rhythm. 

3d.  The  Cmsura  of  the  verse  is  such  a  division  of  the  line  into  two 
parts,  as  affords  to  the  voice  a  pause  or  rest,  at  a  proper  or  fixed 
place  without  injuring  the  sense,  by  pausing  in  the  middle  of  a  void 

2fr* 


294 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


§  164 

8.  The  proper  management  of  this  pause  is  a  great  beauty  in  cer¬ 
tain  kinds  of  verse,  and  shews  the  skill  of  the  poet.  In  pentameter 
verse,  its  place  is  fixed  ;  in  hexameter  and  other  metres  it  is  left  to 
the  poet.  When  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  third  half  foot  it  is  called 
trimimeris  ; — of  the  fifth,  penthemimeris  ; — of  the  seventh,  hephthemi - 
meris. 

9.  The  situation  of  each  foot  in  a  verse  is  called  its  place. 


§  164.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  METRE. 

The  canons,  or  rules  of  the  different  kinds  of  metre  used  in  Latin 
poetry  are  the  following  ; 

I.  IAMBIC  METRE. 

1.  A  pure  iambic  line  consists  of  iambic  feet  only;  as, 

Ph3.se  |  bus  il-  {|  IS  quern  |  vide-  ||  Us  hos-  |  piles.  || 

where  the  single  line  marks  the  end  of  the  foot;  the  double 
line,  the  end  of  the  metre  ;  and  the  Italic  syllable,  the  csesural 
pause. 

2.  A  mixed  iambic  line  admits  a  spondee  into  the  first, 
third,  and  fifth  places ;  and  again  in  all  these  a  dactyl  or  an 
anapaest  is  sometimes  admitted  for  a  spondee,  and  a  tribrach 
for  the  iambus. 

3.  This  verse  occurs  in  all  varieties  of  length  from  the 
dimeter  catalectic  to  the  tetrameter. 

4.  The  caesura  commonly  takes  place  at  the  fifth  half  foot. 

5.  Different  varieties  of  this  metre  are  denominated  as  fol¬ 
lows  ; 

1st.  Senarian,  or  Trim,  acatalectic, used  in  tragedy  and  comedy. 

2d.  Archilochian,  or  Trimeter  catalectic. 

3d  Archilochian }  or  Dimeter  hypermeter. 

4th.  Anacreontic ,  or  Dimeter  catalectic. 

5th.  Galliarnbus ,  or  Dimeter  catalectic,  double  ;  i.  e.  two  verses  in 
one  line. 

6th.  Hipponactic ,  or  Tetrameter  catalectic. 

7th.  Choliambus,  or  Trimeter  Acatalectic.  This  is  called  also, 
Scazon  and  Hipponactic  trimeter,  and  has  a  spondee  in  the 
sixth  place,  and  generally  an  iambus  in  the  fifth. 

8th.  Octonarius,  or  Tetrameter  acatalectic,  called  also  quadratus. 

9th.  Acephalous ,  or  Dimeter,  wanting  the  first  syllable  of  the  first 
foot.  This  may  be  resolved  into  Trochaic  dimeter  catalectic. 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


295 


§  164 


II.  TROCHAIC  METRE. 

1.  A  pure  trochaic  line  consists  of  trochees  only.  These, 
however,  are  but  seldom  used.  An  Acephalous  trochaic  be¬ 
comes  an  iambic  line  ;  and  an  Acephalous  iambic  becomes  a 
trochaic  line. 

2.  A  mixed  trochaic  line  admits  a  spondee,  a  dactyl,  an 
anapaest,  and  sometimes  a  proceleusmatic  in  even  places,  i.  e. 
in  the  2d,  4th,  6th,  &c.  But  in  the  odd  places  a  trochee,  or  a 
tribrach,  and  in  the  last  place,  a  trochee  only. 

3.  This  verse  may  be  used  in  all  varieties  from  the  Mono¬ 
meter  hypercatalectic,  (two  trochees  and  one  syllable,)  to  the 
tetrameter  or  octonarius  catalectic.  The  varieties  most  used 
by  the  Latin  poets,  are 

1st.  The  Trochaic  tetrameter  catalectic,  rarely  pure : 

2d.  The  Sapphic,  consisting  of  five  feet,  viz.  a  trochee,  a 
spondee,  a  dactyl,  and  two  trochees.  It  has  thecaesural 
pause  after  the  fifth  half  foot ;  thus, 

Inte-  |  ger  vl-  |  tae  ||  scele-  |  risque  J  purus.  Hor. 

3d.  The  Phalcecian  or  Phaleucian  consisting  of  five  feet ; 
viz.  a  spondee,  a  dactyl  and  three  trochees  ;  thus, 

Non  est  |  vlvSre  |  sed  va  |  lere  |  vita.  Mart. 

This  verse  neither  requires  nor  rejects  a  caesura. 

4th.  The  Trochaic  dimeter  catalectic  or  Acephalous  iambic 
dimeter.  See  I.  9th. 

5th.  Other  varieties  but  seldom  used  ;  are,  1.  the  Pancratic  mon¬ 
ometer,  hypercatalectic.  2.  The  Ithyphalic ,  dimeter  Brachycat. 
3.  The  Euripidean,  dimeter  catalectic.  4.  The  Alcmanic, 
dimeter  acatalectic.  5.  Anacreontic ,  dimeter  acataleclic,  with 
a  pyrrhic  in  the  first  place.  6.  The  Hipponactic,  tetrameter 
acatalectic. 


in.  anapa:stic  metre. 

1.  A  pure  Anapaestic  line  consists  of  Anapaests  only. 

2.  The  mixed  anapaest  has  a  spondee  or  a  dactyl,  feet  of  equal 
length,  in  any  place. 

3.  The  following  varieties  occur,  viz.  1st.  The  Anapaestic  Mono * 
meter,  consisting  of  two  anapaests.  2d.  The  Anapcestic  dimeter,  con¬ 
sisting  of  four  Anapaests. 

Anapaestic  verses  are  usually  so  constructed,  that  each  measure 
ends  with  a  word,  so  that  they  may  be  read  in  lines  of  one,  two,  or 
more  measures. 


296  PROSODY. - METRE.  §  164 

4.  Other  varieties  not  much  in  use  are  the  Simodian’,  Mon.  AcaL 
The  Partheniac,  Dim.  Cat.  The  Archcbulian  ;  trim.  B.  C. 

IV.  DACTYLIC  METRE. 

1.  A  pure  Dactylic  verse  consists  of  dactyls  only,  which 
have  the  arsis  on  the  first  syllable  of  the  foot. 

Of  this  verse  one  foot  constitutes  a  metre,  and  they  range  in 
length  from  Dimeter  to  Hexameter.  Of  these  the  most  important  are, 

1.  Hexameter  or  Heroic  verse. 

Hexameter  or  Heroic  verse  consists  of  six  feet,  of  which 
the  fifth  is  a  Dactyl,  the  sixth  a  spondee,  and  each  of  the 
other  four  a  dactyl  or  a  spondee ;  as, 

Ludere  |  quse  vel-  |  lem  cala-  |  mo  per-  |  mislt  h-  |  gresti.  Virg. 

Respecting  this  verse  the  following  things  may  be  noticed. 

1st.  When  a  spondee  occurs  in  the  fifth  place,  the  line  is  called 
spondaic.  Such  lines  are  of  a  grave  character,  and  but  rarely  occur. 

2d  When  the  line  consists  of  dactyls,  the  movement  is  brisk  and 
rapid,  when  of  spondees,  slow  and  heavy.  Compare  in  this  respect 
the  two  following  lines  :  the  first  expresses  the  rapid  movement  of 
a  troop  of  horse  over  the  plain  eager  for  the  combat; — the  other  de¬ 
scribes  the  slow  and  toilsome  movements  of  the  Cyclops  at  the  la¬ 
bors  of  the  forge. 

Quadrupe-  |  dante  pu-  |  trem  son!-  |  tu  quatlt  |  ungula  |  campum. 

•Illi  in-  |  ter  se-  j  se  mag-  |  na  vi  |  brachia  |  tollunt.  Virg. 

3d.  The  beauty  and  harmony  of  a  Hexameter  verse  de¬ 
pends  on  the  proper  management  of  the  csssura.  The  most 
approved  ceesural  pause  in  heroic  poetry,  is  that  which  oc¬ 
curs  after  the  arsis  of  the  third  foot.  Sometimes  called  the 
heroic  ctesural  pause  ;  thus, 

At  domus  |  inter!-  |  or  ||  re-  |  gall  [  splendlda  |  luxu.  Yirg. 

In  reading  this  line  with  due  attention  to  quantity,  we  naturally 
pause  where  the  caesural  pause  is  indicated  by  the  double  line,  and 
the  whole  movement  is  graceful  and  pleasing.  Compare  now  with 
this,  a  line  in  which  noattention  is  paid  to  the  caesura,  or  in  which,  if 
one  is  made,  you  have  to  pause  in  the  middle  of  a  word  and  the  dif¬ 
ference  is  manifest. 

Roma  |  moenia  |  ter-  ||  rtiit  |  Implger  |  Hannibal  |  armis. 

Sometimes  the  caesura  falls  after  the  thesis  of  the  third  foot,  or  the 
arsis  of  the  fourth.  In  the  last  case  a  secondary  one  often  occurs  in 
the  second  foot.  The  pause  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  was  the  least 
approved.  The  following  lines  are  examples  of  each  of  these, 

1.  Infan-  |  dum  re-  |  glna  ||  ju-  |  bes  reno  vare  do-  |  lorem.  % 

2.  Primate-  (  net,  |[  plau  |  suque  vo-  |  lat  1  freml*  |  tuque  se-  J  cundo. 

3.  Cut  non  |  dlctus  Hy-  |  las  puer  ||  et  La-  |  tonla  |  Delos. 

2.  A  species  of  Hexameter  is  the  Priapea?i.  It  is  divisi¬ 
ble  into  two  portions  of  three  feet  each,  of  which  portions 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


297 


§164 

the  first  begins  generally  with  a  trochee ,  and  ends  with  an 
amphimacer ,  and  the  second  begins  with  a  trochee  ;  as  fol¬ 
lows, 

O  ct>  |  Ionia  |  quae  cupls  ]|  ponte  |  ludere  |  longo.  Catull. 

These  parts,  however,  may  very  well  be  scanned,  the  first  as  a 
Glyconic,  and  the  second  as  a  Pherecratic  verse,  of  which  see  under 
(V)  Choriambic  verse. 

3.  Pentameter  verse  consists  of  five  feet.  It  is  commonly 
arranged  in  two  portions  or  hemistichs,  of  which  the  first 
contains  two  feet,  dactyls  or  spondees,  followed  by  a  long 
syllable  which  ought  to  end  a  word  ;  and  the  second,  two  dac¬ 
tyls  followed  by  a  long  syllable  ;  thus, 

Maxima  |  de  nlhl-  |  lo  ||  nascitur  hlstori  J  a — Propert. 

Pom&que  |  non  no-  |  us  ||  legit  ab  |  arbor!-  j  bus  f  Tibull. 

Where  the  first  distich  does  not  end  a  word,  or  if  there  be  an  elision 
by  Synaloepha  or  Echthlipsis,  the  verse  is  considered  harsh. 

This  verse  is  commonly  used  alternately  with  a  hexameter  line, 
which  combination  is  commonly  called  Elegiac  verse. 

4.  Dactylic  tetrameter,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds. 

1st.  Dactylic  tetrameter  a  prior e,  called  also  Alcmanian 

Dactylic  tetrameter,  which  consists  of  the  first  four  feet  of 
a  Hexameter  line,  the  fourth  being  always  a  Dactyl ;  as, 

Solvltur  [  acrls  hy-  |  ems  gra-  |  ta  vice.  Hor. 

2d.  Dactylic  tetrameter  a  posteriore,  called  also  Spondaic 
tetrameter ,  which  consists  of  the  last  four  feet  of  a  hexame¬ 
ter  line  j  as, 

Sic  trls-  |  tes  af-  [  fatus  a-  J  ml cos.  Hor. 

5.  Dactylic  trimeter ,  (or  Choriambic  Trimeter  Catalcctic) 
consists  of  the  three  last  feet  of  a  Hexameter  line,  (See 
Choriambic  verse ;)  as, 

Grato  |  Pyrrha  sub  [  antro.  Hor. 

6.  Dactylic  trimeter  catalectic ,  also  called  Archilochian 
penthemimeris ,  consists  of  the  first  five  half  feet  of  a  Hexa¬ 
meter  line  j  as, 

Arbbrl-  |  busque  co  J  mac.  Hor. 

7.  Dactylic  dimeter  or  Adonic — commonly  used  to  con¬ 
clude  a  Sapphic  Stanza — consists  of  a  dactyl  and  spondee ; 
thus, 

Rlslt  A  J  polio. 

V.  CHORIAMBIC  METRE. 

In  Choriambic  verse,  the  leading  foot  is  a  choriambus,  but 
in  the  varieties  of  this  metre,  different  other  feet  are  admit- 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


298 


§164 


ted,  chiefly  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  line,  or  both.  The 
principal  varieties  are  the  following, 

1.  The  Choriambic  'pentameter  consists  of  a  spondee, 
three  choriambi  and  an  iambus  ;  as, 

Tu  ne  |  quoesleris  |  scire  nefas  |  quern  mlhi  quern  |  tibl. 

2.  Choriambic  tetrameter,  consists  of  three  choriambi,  or 
feet  equivalent  in  length  and  a  Bacchius  5  as, 

Jane  pater  |  Jane  tuens  [  dive  biceps  )  biformis. 

Horace  altered  without  improving  this  metre,  by  substituting  a 
spondee  for  the  iambus  in  the  first  foot ;  as, 

Te  dees  o-  |  ro  Sybarin  |  &c. 

Note. — Choriambic  tetram.  was  originally  called  Phaloecian,  from 
Phalaecus,  who  made  great  use  of  it. 

3.  Asclepiadic  tetrameter,  consists  of  a  spondee,  two 
choriambi  and  an  iambus  ;  thus, 

Msece-  j  nas  atavls  ||  edits  re-  j  gibus. — Hor. 

This  form  is  uniformly  used  by  Horace.  Other  poets  sometimes 
make  the  first  foot  a  dactyl. 

The  caesural  pause  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  first  choriambus. 

This  verse  is  sometimes  scanned  as  a  Dactylic,  pentameter  cata- 
lectic  j  thus, 

Maece-  |  nas  ata.  |  vis  |  edite  |  reglbhs. 

4.  Choriambic  trimeter  or  Glyconic,  consists  of  a  spon¬ 
dee,  (sometimes  an  iambus  or  trochee,)  a  choriambus  and 
an  iambus  j  as, 

Sic  te  |  diva  potens  |  Cypri. — Hor. 

When  the  first  foot  is  a  spondee,  it  may  be  scanned  as  dactylic 
trimeter  ;  as, 

Sic  te  |  diva  p5-  |  tens  Cypri. 

5.  Choriambic  trimeter  catalectic  or  Pherecratic ,  consists 
of  a  spondee,  choriambus  and  a  catalectic  syllable ;  as, 

Grato  |  Pyrrha  sub  ant-  |  tro 

Here  also  the  first  foot  is  sometimes  a  trochee  or  an  iambus.  When 
a  spondee  it  may  be  scanned,  as  Dactylic  trimeter,  see  IV.  5. 

6.  Choriambic  Dimeter ,  consists  of  a  choriambus  and  a 
Bacchius ;  as, 

Lydia  die  |  per  omnes. — Hor. 

VI.  IONIC  METRE. 

1.  The  Ionic  a  major e,  or  Soladic  Metre,  consists  of  three 
Ionics  a  majore,  and  a  spondee  ;  as, 

Has  cum  geml-  |  na  compede  |  dedicat  ca-  |  tenas. 

In  this  metre,  the  Ionic  feet  are  often  two  trochees,  as  in  the  third 
foot  of  the  preceding  line  ;  and  a  long  syllable  is  often  resolved  into 
two  short  ones 


PRO  S  O  DY. METRE. 


299 


§  165-6 


2.  The  Ionic  a  minore ,  consists  generally  of  three  or  four 
feet,  which  are  all  Ionics  a  minore  ;  as, 

Puer  ales  I  tlbl  tells  J  operosse-  |  que  Mlnervse.  Hor. 


§  165.  COMPOUND  METRES. 

A  compound  metre  or  Asynartete ,  is  the  union  of  two 
kinds  of  metre  in  the  same  verse  or  line.  Of  these  the  fol¬ 
lowing  are  the  chief. 

1.  Greater  Alcaic.  Iambic  Mon.  hyper  -j-  Chor.  dim.  A  cat, 

Thus,  —  j'-'  —  —  —  —  j  w  — 

2.  Lesser  Alcaic.  Dactylic  dim.  -j-  Trochaic  Mon. 

Thus,  —  v-'  |  — 

3.  Archilochian  Hept.  or  Dact.  tetr.  a  priore  -f-Troch.  Dim.  B.  C. 

Thus,  —  ww  —  ww  —  ww  — — — -  — 

4.  Dactylico- Iambic.  Dactylic  trim  Cat.  -j-  Iambic  dim. 

Thus,  —  ^  ^  — .v_x  v_x  —  J  — 

5.  lambico  Dactylic.  Iambic  dim  +  Dactylic  trim.  Cat, 

Thus,  —  J  —  |  ^  — 


§  166  SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  the  measuring  of  verse,  or  the  resolving  of  a  line  into 
the  several  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

To  do  this  properly,  a  previous  acquaintance  with  the  rules  of 
quantity,  and  the  structure  of  each  kind  of  verse,  is  indispensable, — 
and  also  with  the  various  ways  by  which  syllables  in  certain  situations 
are  varied  by  contraction,  elision,  See.  These  are  usually  called  Fi¬ 
gures  of  Prosody,  and  are  as  follows: 

FIGURES  OF  PROSODY. 

1.  Synaloepha ,  cuts  offa  vowel  or  diphthong  from  the  end 
of  a  word,  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel,  or  h 
with  a  vowel  following  it,  thus  converting  two  syllables  in¬ 
to  one ;  as, 

Terra  antiqua  by  Synaloepha,  terr ’  antiqua ;  Dardanidce  infensi ,  Dar- 
danid ’  infensi;  vento  hue ,  vent'  uc ;  thus; 

Quldve  moror  ?  si  omnes  uno  ordine  habetis  Achivos.  Virg. 


300 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


§  1^6 


Scanned  thus, 

QuTdvemQ-  |  ror  ?  s’  ora  |  nes  u-  |  n’  or  din’  ha-  |  betls  A-  |  chlvos. 

The  Synaloepha  is  sometimes  neglected,  and  seldom  takes  place  in 
the  interjections  0,  heu,  ah,  proh,  vce,  vah,  hei. 

Long  vowels  and  diphthongs,  when  not  cut  off,  are  sometimes  short¬ 
ened;  as, 

Insulae  |  IOnP  |  in  mag-  |  no  quas  |  dira  Ce-  |  laeno.  Virg. 

Credlmus  |  an  qui  a.-  |  mant  ip-  |  si  slbi  [  somnia  |  f  ingunt.  Id. 

2.  Echthlipsis  cuts  off  m  with  a  vowel  preceding  it,  from 
the  end  of  a  word,  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel, 
or  h  followed  by  a  vowel ;  as, 

Monstrum  horrendum,  informe,  ingens,  cui  lumen  ademptum. 

Scanned  thus, 

Monstr’  hor-  |  rend,’  in  -  |  form’  in-  |  gens  cui  |  lum6n  ad  |  emptum 

This  elision  was  sometimes  omitted  by  the  early  poets;  as, 
Corporum  |  offici-  |  um  est  quoni-  |  am  preme-  |  re  omnia  |  decorum . 
Lucr. 

3.  A  Synaloepha  and  Ecthlipsis  are  sometimes  found  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  where,  after  the  completing  of  the  metre,  a  syllable  remains 
to  be  joined  to  the  next  line,  which  of  course,  must  begin  with  a  vow- 
el;  thus, 

Sternitur  |  infe-  |  lix  ali-  |  one  |  vulnere  |  coelum  ||  que. 

Adspicit,  &c. 

Here  the  que  and  adspicit  are  joined;  as,  qu’  adspicit. 

Jamque  iter  |  emen-  |  si,  tur-  [  res  ac  [  tecta  La-  |  tino-  ||  rum 

Ardua,  &c.  where  the  -nm  and  ardua  are  joined;  as,  r’  ardua. 

3.  Synaresis ,  sometimes  called  Crasis ,  contracts  two  syl¬ 
lables  into  one;  as,  Phcethon  for  Phaethon  this  is  done  by 
forming  two  vowels  into  a  diphthong ;  as  ac,  ei ,  o'i,  into  ce,  ei, 
oi;  or  pronouncing  the  two  syllables  as  one  ;  thus,  ea ,  iu,  as 
if  ya ,  yu ,  &c  ;  as,  aurea ,  aurya;  Jilius,filyus;  and  ua ,  ui,  &c. 
as  if  wa,  wi;  thus,  genua ,  genwa ;  tenuis,  tenwis. 

4.  Diceresis  divides  one  syllable  into  two ;  as  aulcii,  for 
aulce;  Troice  for  Trojce;  Perseus,  for  Perseus;  miliius ,  for 
milvus;  soliiit ,  for  solvit;  voliiit ,  for  volvit;  aqiice ,  siietus , 
siiasit,  Siievos,  relangiiit,  reliqiias ,  for  aquce,  suetus ,  &c.  as, 

Aulai  in  medio  libabant  pocula  Bacchi.  Virg. 

Stamina  non  ulli  dissoliienda  Deo.  Pentam.  Tibullus. 

6.  Systole  makes  a  long  syllable  short ;  as,  the  penult  in 
tulerunt;  thus, 

Matri  |  longa  de-  J  cem  tulS-  |  rant  fas-  j  tidia  j  menses.  Virg. 


§  167-8 


PROSODY. - METRE. 


301 


Diastole  makes  a  short  syllable  long ,  as  the  last  syllable 
of  amor  in  the  following  verse  : 

Consi-  |  dant,  si-  |  tantus  a-  |  mor,  et  |  mcenia  J  condant.  Virg. 


$  167.  STANZA. 

A  poem  may  consist  of  one  or  more  kinds  of  verse.  When  a  poem 
consists  of  one  kind  of  verse  it  is  called  monocolon ;  of  two ,dicolon-}  of 
three,  tricolon. 

The  different  kinds  of  verse  in  a  poem  are  usually  combined  in 
regular  portions  called  stanzas,  or  strophes,  each  of  which  contains 
the  same  number  of  lines,  the  same  kinds  of  verse,  and  these  ar¬ 
ranged  in  the  same  order. 

When  a  stanza  or  strophe  consists  of  two  lines,  the  poem  is  called 
distrophon,  of  three  lines  tristrophon,  of  four  tetr astrophon.  Hence 
poems,  according  to  the  number  of  kinds  of  verse  they  contain,  and 
the  number  of  lines  in  the  stanza  are  characterized  as  follows  ; 

Monocolon ,  one  kind  of  verse  in  the  poem. 

Dicolon  distrophon ,  two  kinds  of  verse,  and  two  lines  in  the  stanza. 

Dicolon  tristrophon ,  two  kinds  of  verse,  three  lines  in  the  stanza. 

Dicolon  tetr  astrophon,  two  kinds  of  verse,  four  lines  in  the  stanza. 

Tricolon  tristrophon ,  three  kinds  of  verse,  three  lines  in  the  stanza. 

Tricolon  tetr  astrophon,  three  kinds  of  verse,  four  lines  in  the  stanza. 


§  168.  COMBINATIONS  OF  METRES  IN  HORACE. 

Horace  makes  use  of  nineteen  different  species  of  metre  combined 
in  eighteen  different  ways.  They  are  arranged  as  follows;  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  order  of  preference  given  them  by  the  poet.  The  refer¬ 
ences  here,  where  not  marked,  are  to  §  164. 

No.  1.  Two  lines  Greater  Alcaic.  §  165.  1.  One  Archolichian  di¬ 
meter  hypermeter,  I.  2.  5.  3d  ;  and  one  Lesser  Alcaic. 
§  165.  2. 

No.  2.  Three  lines  Sapphic,  II.  2.  One  Adonic  or  Dactylic  dim. 
IV.  7. 

No.  3.  One  line  Choriambic  trim. or  Glyconic,  V.  4.  One  choriam- 
bic  tetram.  or  Asclepiadic  V.  3. 

No.  4.  One  line  Iambic  trim,  or  Senarian,  I.  3.  5.  1st.  One  Iambic 
dim.  I.  2.  3. 

No.  5.  Three  lines,  Chor.  tetram.  or  Asclepiadic,  V.  3.  One 
Chor.  trim,  or  Glyconic,  V.  4. 

No.  6.  Two  lines  Chor.  tetram,  or  Asclepiadic,  V.  3.  One  Chor.  trim. 

Cat.,  or  Pherecratic,  V.  5.  One  Chor.  trim  or  Glyconic.  V.  4. 
No.  7.  Choriambic  tetrameter,  or  Asclepiadic  alone,  V.  3. 

No.  8.  One  line  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  I.  One  Dactylic  tetram,  a 
posteriore,  IV.  4.  2d. 

No  9.  Choriambic  Pentameter  only,  V.  1. 

26 


302  PROSODY. - METRE.  $  I  HO 

Nc  10.  One  line  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  1 .  One  Iambic  dim.  1 . 2. 3. 

No  V.  Iambic  trimeter  Senarian  only,  I.  2.  5.  1st. 

No.  12.  One  line  Choriambic  dim.  V.  6.  One  Chor.  tetram.  (alter¬ 
ed,)  V.  2. 

No.  13.  One  line  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  1.  One  Iambic  trim, 
sen.  I.  3.  5.  1st. 

No.  14.  One  line  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  1.  One  Archilochian 
Dactylic  trimeter  Catalectic,  IV.  6. 

No.  15.  One  line  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  1.  One  Iambico  Dacty¬ 
lic,  §  165.  5. 

No.  16.  One  line  lambic  trim.  Senarian,  I.  3.  5.  1st.  One  Dactylic 
Iambic.  165,  4. 

No.  17.  One  line  Archilochian  Heptameter,  §  165.  3.  One  Archi¬ 
lochian  Iambic  trimeter,  Catalectic,  I.  2.  5,  2d. 

No.  18.  One  line  Iambic  dimiter  Acephalous,  I.  5.  9th.  and  one  Iambic 
trimeter  Catalectic,  I.  5.  2d. 

No.  19.  Ionic  a  minore  only,  VI,  2.  The  first  line  contains  three 
feet,  the  second  four. 

Note. — The  Satires  and  Epistles  are  in  Dactylic  Hexameter,  IV.  1- 


$  169.  METRICAL  KEY  TO  ODES  OF  HORACE. 


Containing  in  alphabetic  order  the  the  first  words  of  each,  with  a 
reference  to  the  Nos.  in  the  preceding  section  where  the  stanza  is 
described,  and  reference  made  to  the  place  where  each  metre  is  ex¬ 
plained 


iEli  vetusto . No.  1 

A£quam  memento .  1 

Albi  ne  doleas .  5 

Altera  jam  teritur .  13 

Angustam  amici .  1 

At  O  deorum . 4 

Audivere  Lyce .  6 

Bacchum  in  remotis .  1 

Beatus  ille .  4 

Coelo  supinas .  1 

Coelo  tonantem .  1 

Cum  tu  Lydia .  3 

Cur  me  querelis .  1 

Delicta  majorum .  1 

Descende  coelo .  1 

Dianam  tenerae .  6 

Diffug§re  nives .  14 

Dive  quern  proles .  2 

Divis  orte  bonis .  5 

Donarem  pateras .  7 

Donee  gratus  eram .  3 

Eheu  fugaces .  1 

Est  mihi  nonum .  2 


Et  thure  et  fidibus . No.  3 

Exegi  monumentum .  7 

Extremum  Tanaim .  5 

Faune  nympharum .  2 

Festo  quid  potius  die .  3 

Herculis  ritu .  2 

Horrida  tempestas .  15 

Ibis  Liburnis .  4 

Icci  beatis .  1 

Ille  et  nefasto . 1 

Impios  parrae  . 2 

Inclusam  Danaen .  5 

Intactis  opulentior .  3 

Integer  vitae .  2 

Intermissa  Venus  diu .  3 

Jam  jam  efficaci .  11 

Jam  pauca  aratro .  1 

Jam  satis  terris .  2 

Jam  veris  comites .  5 

Justum  et  tenacem .  1 

Laudabunt  alii .  8 

Lupis  et  agnis  .  4 

Lydia  die  per  omnes .  12 


PRO  S  O  DY. - METRE 


303 


§  169 

Maecenas  atavis .  No. 

Mala  soluta . 

Martiis  ccelebs . 

Mater  sseva  Cupidinum . 

Mercuri  facunde . 

Mercuri  nam  te . 

Miserarum  est . 

Mollis  inertia . 

Montium  custos . 

Motum  ex  Metello . 

Musis  amicus . 

Natis  in  usum . 

Ne  forte  credas . 

Ne  sit  ancillse . 

Nolis  longa  ferae . 

Nondum  subacta . 

Non  ebur  neque  aureum . 

Non  semper  imbres . 

Non  usitata . 

Non  vides  quanto . 

Nox  erat . . . 

Nullam  Vare  sacra . 

Nullus  argento . 

Nunc  estbibendum . 

O  crudelis  adhuc . 

O  Diva  gralum . 

O  fons  Blandusiae . 

O  matre  pulchra . 

O  nata  mecum . 

O  navis  referent . 

O  saepe  mecum . 

O  Venus  regina . 

Odi  profanum . 

Otium  Divos . 

Parcius  junctas . 

Parcus  Deorum . 

Parentis  olim . 

Pastor  quum  traheret . 


Persicos  odi  puer . No.  2 

Petti  nihil  me .  16 

Phoebe,  silvarumque .  2 

Phoebus  volentem .  1 

Pindarum  quisquis .  2 

Poscimur  siquid .  2 

Quae  cura  patrum .  1 

Qualem  ministrum .  1 

Quando  repostum . 4 

Quantum  distet  ab  Inacho. ...  3 

Quem  tu  Melpomene .  3 

Quern  virum  aut  heroa . ,  2 

Quid  bellicosus .  1 

Quid  dedicatum .  1 

Quid  fles  Asterie .  6 

Quid  immerentes .  4 

Quid  obseratis .  11 

Quid  tibi  vis .  8 

Quis  desidero .  5 

Quis  multa  gracilis .  6 

Quo  me  Bacche .  3 

Quo,  quo  scelesti  ruitis .  4 

Rcctius  vives .  2 

Rogare  longo .  4 

Scriberis  Vario . . .  5 

Septimi  Gades .  2 

Sic  te  Diva  potens  . 3 

Solvitur  acris  hiems .  17 

Te  maris  et  terree .  8 

Tu  ne  qnaesieris .  9 

Tyrrhena  regum .  1 

Ulla  si  juris .  2 

Uxor  pauperis  Ibyci .  3 

Velox  amcenum .  1 

Vides  ut  alta .  3 

Vile  potabis .  2 

Vitas  hinnuleo .  6 

Vixi  choreis . «.  1 


7 

4 

2 

3 

2 

2 

19 

10 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

5 

1 

18 

1 

1 

2 

10 

9 

2 

1 

9 

1 

6 

1 

1 

6 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

4 

5 


APPENDIX. 


1.  ROMAN  COMPUTATION  OF  TIME. 

1.  Divisions  of  the  Year. 

Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  the  year  into  ten  months,  as  fol¬ 
lows:  1.  Martius,  from  Mars,  his  supposed  father;  2.  Aprilis ,  from 
Aperio ,  “to  open;”  3.  Maius,  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury; 
4.  Junius,  from  the  goddess  Juno.  The  rest  were  named  from  their 
number,  as  follows:  5.  Quintilis,  afterwards  Julius ,  from  Julius 
Ccesar;  6.  Sextilis,  afterwards  Augustus,  from  Augustus  Ccesar ; 
7.  September;  8.  October;  9.  November;  and  10.  December.  Numa 
afterwards  added  two  months;  viz:  11.  Januarius ,  from  the  god 
Janus;  12.  F ebruarius ,  from  februo,  u  to  purify.” 

As  the  months  were  regulated  by  the  course  of  the  moon,  it  was 
soon  found  that  the  months  and  seasons  did  not  always  correspond, 
and  various  expedients  were  adopted  to  correct  this  error.  Much 
confusion  however  still  remained  till  about  A.  U.  707,  when  Julius 
Caesar,  assisted  by  Sosigenes,  an  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  reformed 
the  Calendar,  adjusted  the  year  according  to  the  course  of  the  sun, 
and  assigned  to  each  of  the  twelve  months  the  number  of  days  which 
they  still  contain. 

2.  The  Roman  Month. 

The  Romans  divided  their  month  into  three  parts,  called  Kalends , 
Nones,  and  Ides*.  The  first  day  of  every  month  was  called  the  Ka¬ 
lends;  the  fifth  was  called  the  Nones-,  and  the  thirteenth  was  called 
the  Ides;  except  in  March,  May,  July  and  October,  when  the  Nones 
fell  on  the  seventh  and  the  Ides  on  the  fifteenth,  and  the  day  was 
numbered  according  to  its  distance,  (not  after  but)  before  each  of 
these  points;  that  is,  after  the  Kalends  they  numbered  the  day  accord¬ 
ing  to  its  distance  before  the  Nones;  after  the  Nones,  according  to  its 
distance  before  the  Ides;  and  after  the  Ides,  according  to  its  distance 
before  the  Kalends — both  days  being  always  included.  The  day  before 
each  of  these  points  was  never  numbered,  but  called  Pridie,  or  ante 
diem  Nonorum ,  or  Iduum,  or  Kalendarum,  as  the  case  might  be;  the 
day  before  that  was  called  tertio,  the  day  before  that,  quarto,  &.C.; 
Scil.  Nonorum,  Iduum,  Kalendarum. 

Various  expressions  and  constructions  wrere  used  by  the  Romans  in 
the  notation  of  the  days  of  the  month.  Thus,  for  example,  the  29th 
December  or  the  4th  of  the  Kalends  of  January,  was  expressed  dif¬ 
ferently,  as  follows : 


*  The  first  day  was  named  Kalends,  from  the  Greek,  XaXsGJ,  to  call,  because  when 

the  month  was  regulated  acccording  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  the  priest  announced 
the  new  moon,  which  was  of  course  the  first  day  of  the  month.  The  Nones  were  so 
called  because  that  day  was  always  the  ninth  from  the  Ides.  The  term  Ides  is  derived 
from  an  obsolete  Latin  verb  iduare ,  to  divide,  it  is  supposed  because  that  day  being 
about  the  middle  of  the  month  divided  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 


ROMAN  COMPUTATION  OF  TIME. 


305 


1st  Quarto  Kalendarum  Januarii.  Abbreviated,  IV.  Kal.  Jan.,  or 
2a.  Quarto  Kalendas  Januarii.  11  IY.  Kal.  Jan.,  or 

3d.  Quarto  Kalendas  Januarias.  u  IV.  Kal.  Jan.,  or 

4th.  Ante  diem  quartum  Kal.  Jan.  “  a.  d.  IV.  K.  Jan. 

In  these  expressions  quarto  agrees  with  die  understood,  and  die 
governs  Kalendarum  in  the  genitive.  Kalendas  is  governed  by  ante 
understood.  In  the  first  and  second  expression  Januarii  is  considered 
as  a  noun  governed  by  Kalendarum.  and  Kalendas ;  in  the  third  Janu¬ 
arias  is  regarded  as  an  adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendas;  in  the 
fourth,  ante  diem  quartum  is  a  technical  phrase  for  die  quarto  ante , 
and  frequently  has  a  preposition  before  it;  as,  in  ante  diem ,  &c.,  or 
ex  ante  diem ,  &c. 

The  notation  of  Nones  and  Ides  was  expressed  in  the  same  way 
and  with  the  same  variety  of  expression. 

The  correspondence  of  the  Roman  notation  of  time  with  our  own 
may  be  seen  by  inspection  of  the  following 

TABLE. 


Days  of 
our 

months. 

Mar.  Mai. 
Jul.  Oct. 
31  days. 

Jan.  Aug. 
Dec. 

31  days . 

Apr.  J*n. 
Sept.  Nov. 
30  days. 

Febr. 

28  days. 
Biss  ex.  29. 

1 

Kalendae. 

Kalendae. 

Kalendae. 

Kalend®. 

2 

VI.  nonas. 

IV.  nonas. 

IV.  nonas. 

IV.  nonas. 

3 

V. 

it 

III. 

it 

III. 

i  i 

III.  “ 

4 

IV. 

tt 

Pridie 

n 

Pridie 

tt 

Pridie  “ 

5 

III. 

tt 

Non®. 

Non®. 

Non®. 

6 

Pridie 

it 

VIII.  idus. 

VIII. 

idus. 

VIII.  idus. 

7 

Non®. 

VII. 

tt 

VII. 

tt 

VII.  “ 

8 

VIII.  idus. 

VI. 

a 

VI. 

tt 

VI.  “ 

9 

VII. 

i  l 

V. 

a 

V. 

tt 

V.  “ 

10 

vr. 

u 

IV. 

tt 

IV. 

tt 

IV.  “ 

•  11 

V. 

It 

III. 

t  t 

III. 

tt 

III.  “ 

12 

IV. 

(f 

Pridie 

u 

Pridie 

tt 

Pridie  u 

13 

III. 

It 

Idus. 

Idus. 

Idus. 

14 

Pridie 

it 

XIX.  kal. 

XVIII 

.  kal. 

XVI.  kal. 

15 

Idus. 

XVIII. 

it 

XVII. 

U 

XV.  “ 

16 

XVII. 

kal. 

XVII. 

u 

XVI. 

it 

XIV.  “ 

17 

XVI. 

tt 

XVI. 

it 

XV. 

tt 

XIII.  “ 

18 

XV. 

u 

XV. 

it 

XIV. 

tt 

XII.  “ 

19 

XIV. 

u 

XIV. 

a 

XIII. 

tt 

XI.  “ 

20 

XIII. 

u 

XIII. 

it 

XII. 

cc 

X.  “ 

21 

XII. 

tt 

XII. 

tt 

XI. 

.( 

IX.  “ 

22 

XI. 

a 

XI. 

tt 

X. 

it 

VIII.  '* 

23 

X. 

tt 

X. 

tt 

IX. 

tt 

VII.  “ 

24 

IX. 

a 

IX. 

tt 

VIII. 

tt 

VI.  “ 

25 

VIII. 

it 

VIII. 

tt 

VII. 

It 

V.  •< 

26 

VII. 

u 

VII. 

tt 

VI. 

tt 

IV.  “ 

27 

VI. 

tt 

VI. 

tt 

V. 

tt 

III.  “ 

28 

V. 

tt 

V. 

tt 

IV. 

tt 

Pridie  Mar 

29 

IV. 

it 

IV. 

tt 

III. 

ft 

30 

III. 

u 

III. 

tt 

Pridie 

tt 

31 

Pridie 

tt 

Pridie 

C  ( 

30b 


APPENDIX. 


3.  Rules  for  reducing  Time. 

As,  however,  this  table  cannot  be  always  at  hand,  the  following 
simple  rules  will  enable  a  person  to  reduce  time  without  a  table 

I.  TO  REDUCE  ROMAN  TIME  TO  OUR  OWN. 

For  reducing  Kalends. 

Kalendce  are  always  the  first  day  of  the  month: — Pridie  Kalenda- 
rum}  always  the  last  day  of  the  month  preceding.  For  any  other 
notation  observe  the  following 

Rule.  Subtract  the  number  of  the  Kalends  given  from 
the  number  of  days  in  the  preceding  month ;  add  2,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  day  of  the  preceding  month  ;  thus, 

X.  Kal.  Jan. — Dec.  has  days  31 — 10=21+2=23d  of  Dec'r. 

XVI.  Kal.  Dec. — Nov.  has  days  30 — 16=14+2=16th  of  Nov’r. 

For  reducing  Nones  and  Ides. 

Rule.  Subtract  the  number  given  from  the  number  of  the 
day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides  fall,  and  add  1.  The  result 
will  be  the  day  of  the  month  named;  thus, 

IV.  Non.  Dec. — Nones  on  the  5 — 4=1+1=2,  or  2d  Dec’r. 

VI.  Id.  Dec. — Ides  on  the  13 — 6=7 -j- 1=8 ,  or  8th  Dec’r. 

IV.  Non.  Mar. — Nones  on  the  7 — 4=3+l=4,  or  4th  March. 

VI.  Id.  Mar. — Ides  on  the  15 — 6=9-f- 1=10,  or  10th  March. 

II.  FOR  REDUCING  OUR  TIME  TO  ROMAN. 

If  the  day  is  that  on  which  the  Kalends,  Nones,  or  Ides  fall,  call  it 
by  these  names.  If  the  day  before,  call  it  Pridie  Kal.  (of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  month,)  Prid.  Non.,  Pridie  Id.  (of  the  same  month.)  Other 
days  to  be  denominated  according  to  their  distance  before  the  point 
next  following,  viz:  those  after  the  Kalends  and  before  the  Nones,  to 
be  called  Nones;  those  after  the  Nones  and  before  the  Ides,  to  be  called 
Ides;  and  those  after  the  Ides  and  before  the  Kalends,  to  be  called 
Kalends ,  of  the  month  following;  as  follows: 

For  reducing  to  Kalends . 

Rule.  Subtract  the  day  of  the  mouth  given  from  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  add  2.  The  result  will 
be  the  number  of  the  Kalends  of  the  month  following ;  thus: 

Dec.  23d. — Dec.  has  days  31 — 23=8+2=10,  or  X.  Kal.  Jan. 

Nov.  16th. — Nov.  has  days  30 — 16=14+2=16,  or  XVI.  Kal.  Dec. 

For  reducing  to  Nones  and  Ides. 

Rule.  Subtract  the  day  of  the  month  given  from  the  day 
of  the  Nones,  (if  between  the  Kalends  and  Nones,)  or  from 
the  day  of  the  Ides,  (if  between  the  Nones  and  Ides,)  and 
add  1.  The  result  will  be  the  number  of  the  Nones  or  Ides 
respectively;  as, 

Dec.  2d. — Day  of  the  Nones  5 — 2=3+ 1=4,  or  IV.  Non.  Dec 

Dec.  8th.  *  “  Ides  13—8=5+1=6,  or  VI.  Id.  Dec. 

March  4th.  “  Nones  7— 4=3+l=4,  or  IV.  Non.  Mar 

March  10th.  “  Ides  15 — 10=5+1=6,  or  VI.  Id.  Mar. 


ROMAN  NAMES. 


307 


Division  of  the  Roman  Day. 

The  Roman  civil  day  extended,  as  with  us,  from  midnight  to  mid. 
night,  and  its  parts  were  variously  named;  as,  media  nox,  Gallicin - 
turn,  Canticinium ,  diluculum ,  ? nane,  Antemeridianum ,  Meridies 
Pomeridianum,  &c. 

The  natural  day  extended  from  sunrise  ( soils  ortus.j)  till  sunset 
( solis  occasus )  and  was  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  called  hours, 
(horce) ;  which  were  of  course  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the 
length  of  the  day.  At  the  equinox  their  hour  and  ours  would  be  of 
the  same  length;  but  as  they  began  to  number  at  sunrise  the  number 
would  be  different;  i.  e.,  their  first  hour  would  correspond  to  our  7 
o’clock,  their  second  to  our  8  o’clock,  &c. 

The  night  was  divided  by  the  Romans  into  four  watches,  (  Vigilice ) 
each  equal  to  three  hours;  the  first  and  second  extending  from  sunset 
to  midnight,  and  the  third  and  fourth  from  midnight  to  sunrise. 

II.  OF  ROMAN  NAMES. 

The  Romans  at  first  seem  to  have  had  but  one  name;  as,  Romulus, 
Remus ,  Numitor;  sometimes  two;  as,  Numa  Pompilius,  Ancus  Mar- 
tius,  &c.;  but  when  they  began  to  be  divided  into  tribes  or  clans, 
(gentes,)  they  commonly  had  three  names — the  Prcenomen,  the  No¬ 
men,  and  the  Cognomen ;  arranged  as  follows: 

1.  The  Prcenomen  stood  first,  and  distinguished  the  individual.  It 
was  commonly  written  with  one  or  two  letters;  as,  A.  for  Aulus,  C . 
for  Caius,  Cn.  for  Cneius,  &c. 

2.  The  Nomen,  which  distinguished  the  gens.  This  name  com¬ 
monly  ended  in  ius;  as,  Cornelius,  Fabius ,  Tullius,  &c.;  and 

3.  The  Cognomen,  or  surname,  was  put  last  and  marked  the  fam¬ 
ily;  as,  Cicero,  C cesar,  &c. 

Thus,  in  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  Publius  is  the  Prcenomen,  and 
denotes  the  individual;  Cornelius  is  the  Nomen ,  and  denotes  the  gens ; 
and  Scipio  is  the  Cognomen ,  and  denotes  the  family . 

4.  Sometimes  a  fourth  name  called  the  Agnomen  was  added,  as  a 
memorial  of  some  illustrious  action  or  remarkable  event.  Thus, 
Scipio  was  named  Africanus,  from  the  conquest  of  Carthage  in 
Africa. 

The  three  names,  however,  were  not  always  used — commonly  two, 
and  sometimes  only  one.  In  speaking  to  any  one,  the  Prcenomen  was 
commonly  used,  which  was  peculiar  to  Roman  citizens. 

When  there  was  only  one  daughter  in  a  family,  she  was  called  by 
the  name  of  the  gens  with  a  feminine  termination;  as,  Tullia,  the 
daughter  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero ;  Julia,  the  daughter  of  C.  Julius 
Ccesar.  If  there  were  two  the  elder  was  called  Major,  and  the 
younger  Minor;  as,  Tullia  Major,  &c.  If  more  than  two,  they  were 
distinguished  by  numerals;  as,  Prima,  Secunda,  Tertia,  &c. 

Slaves  had  no  Prcenomen,  but  were  anciently  called  by  the  prreno- 
men  of  their  master;  as,  Marcipor,  as  if  Marci  puer;  Lucipor, 
( Lucii  puer,)  &c.  Afterwards  they  came  to  be  named  either  from 
their  country  or  from  other  circumstances;  as,  Syrus,  Davus,  Geta, 
Tiro,  Laurea;  and  still  more  frequently  from  their  employment;  as, 
Medici.  Chirurgi,  Pcedagogx,  Grammatici,Scribce,  Fabri,  &c. 


30S 


APPENDIX. 


The  most  common  abbreviations  of  Latin  names  are  the  follow 
ing,  viz: 


A.,  Aulus. 

C. ,  Caius. 
Cn.,  C nexus. 

D. ,  Decimus. 

L. ,  Lucius. 

M. ,  Marcus. 


M.  T.  C.,  Marcus 
Tullius  Cicero. 
M.’,  Manius. 

Mam.,  Mamercus. 
‘N.j  Numerius. 

P.,  Publius. 


Q.,  or  Qu.,  Quintus. 
Ser.,  Servius. 

S. ,  or  Sex.,  Sextus. 
Sp.,  Spurius. 

T. ,  Titus. 

Ti.,  or  Tib.,  Tiberius 


Other  Abbreviations. 


S.,  Salutem ,  Sacrum , 
Senatus. 

S.  D.  P.,  Salutem  eli¬ 
cit  plurimam. 

S.  P.  Q:  R.,  Senatus 


A.  d.,  Ante  diem.  Id.,  Idus. 

A.  U.,  Anno  Urbis.  Imp.,  Imperator . 

A.  U.  C.,  Anno  urbis  Non..  Nonce. 

conditce.  P.  C.,  Patres  con- 

Cal.  orkal.,  Kalendce.  scripti. 

Cos.,  Consul.  (Singu-  P.  R .,  Populus  Roma-  populusque  Roma 
lar.)  nus.  nus. 

Coss.,  Consules.  (Plu-  Pont.  Max.,  Pontifex  S.  C.,  Senatus  consul- 
ral.)  maximus.  turn. 

I).,  Divus.  Pr.,  Prcetor. 

Eq.  Rom.,  Eques  Ro-  Proc.,  Proconsul, 
manus.  Resp.,  Respublica. 

III.  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ROMAN  PEOPLE. 


The  Roman  people  were  originally  divided  as  follows: 

1.  Patres.  Fathers,  or  Senators,  called  also  patrones,  from  their 

relation  to  the  plebeians,  to  whom  they  were  the  legal  protectors 

2.  Plebes,  or  common  people,  called  also  clientes. 

There  were  afterwards  added 

3.  Equites,  or  Knights,  Persons  of  merit  and  distinction  selected 

from  the  two  orders,  whose  duty  at  first  was  to  serve  in  war  as 
cavalry,  but  they  were  afterwards  advanced  to  other  important 
offices.  They  must  be  over  18  years  of  age,  and  possess  a  for 
tune  of  four  hundred  thousand  sesterces. 

4.  Liberti,  or  Libertini.  Freedmen.  Persons  who  had  once  been 

slaves,  but  obtained  their  freedom  and  ranked  as  citizens. 

5.  Servi.  Slaves. 

When  Romulus  arranged  the  affairs  of  the  new  city  he  appointed 
a  council  of  100  Patres  from  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  added  to 
them  100  more  from  the  Sabines.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  the  fifth  king 
of  Rome,  added  100  more,  called  Patres  minorum  gentium,  in  rela 
tion  to  whom  the  former  senators  were  called  Patres  majorum  gen¬ 
tium,  making  300  in  all.  A  great  part  of  these  were  slain  by  Tar. 
quin  the  proud;  and  after  his  expulsion,  Brutus,  the  first  consul, 
chose  a  number  to  supply  their  place,  who  were  called  Patres  con- 
scripti,  because  they  were  enrolled  with  the  other  senators.  This 
title  was  afterwards  applied  to  all  the  senators  in  council  assembled 
The  sons  of  the  Patres  were  called  Patricii,  or  Patricians.  Be¬ 
sides  these  distinctions  among  the  Romans,  there  were  also  distinc¬ 
tions  of  rank  or  party,  as  follows: 

Nobiles,  whose  ancestors  or  themselves  held  any  curule  office,  i.  e.. 

had  been  Consul ,  Prcetor,  Censor,  or  Curule  JEdile. 

Ignobiles,  who  neither  themselves  nor  their  ancestors  held  any  curule 
office. 


DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ROMAN  CIVIL  OFFICERS. 


309 


Optimatcs,  those  who  favored  the  senate. 

Popularcs ,  those  who  favored  the  people. 

IV  DIVISION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CIVIL  OFFICERS. 

At  first  Rome  was  governed  by  kings  for  the  space  of  244  years. 
The  ordinary  magistrates  after  that  till  the  end  of  the  republic,  were, 

1.  Consuls,  or  chief  magistrates,  of  whom  there  were  two. 

2.  Prcetors,  or  judges,  also  two  in  number,  next  in  dignity  to  the 

consuls. 

3.  Censors,  who  took  charge  of  the  census  and  had  a  general  super¬ 

vision  of  the  morals  of  the  people. 

4.  Tribunes,  of  the  people,  the  special  guardians  of  the  people 

against  the  encroachments  of  the  patricians,  and  who  by  the 
word  <c  Veto,”  I  forbid,  could  prevent  the  passage  of  any  law. 

5.  JEdiles,  who  took  care  of  the  city  and  had  the  inspection  and 

regulation  of  its  public  buildings,  temples,  theatres,  baths,  &c. 

6.  Qucestors ,  or  Treasurers,  who  collected  the  public  revenues. 
Under  the  emperors  there  were  added, 

1.  Prcefectus  Urbi,  or  Governor  of  the  city. 

2.  Prcefectus  Prcetorii,  Commander  of  the  body  guards. 

3.  Prcefectus  Annonce,  whose  duty  it  was  to  procure  and  distribute 

grain  in  times  of  scarcity. 

4.  Prcefectus  militaris  aerarii,  who  had  charge  of  the  military  fund 

5.  Prcefectus  Classis,  Admiral  of  the  fleet. 

6.  Prcefectus  Vigilum,  or  captain  of  the  watch. 

V.  THE  ROMAN  ARMY. 

The  Romans  were  a  nation  of  warriors.  All  within  a  certain  age 
(17  to  45,)  w’ere  obliged  to  go  forth  to  war  at  the  call  of  their  coun¬ 
try.  When  an  army  was  wanted  for  any  purpose,  a  levy  was  made 
among  the  people  of  the  number  required.  These  were  then  arrang 
ed,  officered  and  equipped  for  service. 

The  Legion.  The  leading  division  of  the  Roman  army  was  the 
legion  which  when  full  consisted  of  6000  men,  but  varied  from  that 
to  4000. 

Each  legion  wafe  divided  into  ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  into  three 
maniples,  and  each  maniple  into  two  centuries. 

The  complement  of  cavalry  ( equitatus ,)  for  each  legion  was  three 
hundred,  called  Ala,  or  justus  equitatus.  These  -were  divided  into 
ten  turmce  or  troops;  and  each  turma  into  three  decurice,  or  bodies  of 
ten  men. 

Division  of  the  Soldiers. 

The  Roman  soldiers  were  divided  into  three  classes,  viz; 

1.  Hastati,  or  spearmen;  young  men  who  occupied  the  first  line 

2.  Principes,  or  middle  aged  men,  who  occupied  the  middle  line. 

3.  Triarii ;  veterans  of  approved  valor,  who  occupied  the  third  line. 

Besides  these  there  were, 

4.  Velites;  or  light  armed  soldiers,  distinguished  for  agility  and  swift 

ness. 

5.  Funditorcs;  or  slineers. 

4.  Sagittarii;  or  bowmen 


310 


APPENDIX. 


The  Officers  of  the  Legion  were , 

1.  Six  Military  tribunes,  who  commanded  under  the  consul  in  turn, 

usually  a  month. 

2.  The  Centuriones,  who  commanded  the  centuries. 

The  officers  of  the  Cavalry  were, 

1.  The  Prcefectus  Alee,  or  commander  of  the  wing. 

2.  The  Decuriones,  or  captains  of  ten. 

The  whole  army  was  under  the  command  of  the  consul  or  procon- 
sul,  "who  acted  as  commander-in-chief.  Under  him  were  his  Legati, 
or  lieutenants,  who  acted  in  his  absence  or  under  his  direction;  or,  as 
his  deputies,  were  sent  by  him  on  embassies  or  on  business  of  special 
importance. 

VI.  ROMAN  MONEY— WEIGHTS— AND  MEASURES. 


Roman  Money. 

The  principal  coins  among  the  Romans  were — Brass:  the  *#sand  its 
divisions; — < Silver :  the  Sestertius,  Quinarius,  and  Denarius ,  called 
bigati  and  quadrigati ,  from  the  impression  of  a  chariot  drawn  by 
two  or  four  horses  on  one  side; — Gold :  the  Aureus  or  Solidus. 

Before  the  coining  of  silver  the  Romans  reckoned  by  the  As,  a 
brass  coin,  called  also  libra ■  This  coin  was  originally  the  weight  of 
'.he  Roman  libra  or  pondus,  but  was  afterwards  reduced  at  different 
times,  till  at  last  it  came  to  one  twenty- fourth  of  a  pound,  and  was 
called  libella.  It.  was  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  called  Uncice , 
any  number  of  which  had  a  distinct  name,  as  follows: 


72 

A 

A 

T42 

72 


or 


vW  or 


lo  or 


i 

~5 

l 

7 

1 


Uncia. 

Sextam. 

Quadrans. 

Triens. 

Quincunx. 


6 

f2 


7 

T2 

$ 

72 


or 


or 


1 

2 


<2 


Semis,  sem- 
bella. 
Septunx. 
Bes,  or  bes- 


sis. 


9 

12 
10 
\2 
l  l 

12 


to  or 


or 


3 

4 
6 


Bodrans. 

Bextans. 

Beu?ix. 


After  the  use  of  silver  money,  accounts  were  kept  in  Sesterces, 
( Sestertii .)  This  coin,  emphatically  called  nummus,  (money,)  was 
originally  equal  to  2£  asses,  as  the  name  sestertius  means.  Its  sym¬ 
bol  was  L.  L  .S.,  i.  e.,  Libra  Libra  Semis,  or  the  numeral  letters, 
thus,  IIS,  or  with  a  line  across  HS.  Other  coins  were  multiples  of 
this;  thus,  the  denarius  was  equal  to  4  sesterces  or  10  asses,  and  the 
aureus,  a  gold  coin,  was  equal  to  25  denarii ,  or  100  sestertii.  When 
the  as  was  reduced  in  weight  after  A.  U.  C.  536,  the  sestertius  wras 
worth  4  asses  and  the  denarius  16. 

A  thousand  sestertii  was  called  sestertium,  (not  a  coin  but  the  name 
of  a  sum,)  and  was  indicated  by  the  mark  us.  This  word  was  never 
used  in  the  singular;  and  any  sum  less  than  2,000  sesterces  was  called 
so  many  sestertii-,  2,000  was  called  duo  oxbina  sestertia ;  10,000,  dena 
sestertia;  20,000,  vicena  sestertia,  &c.,  up  to  a  million  of  sesterces; 
which  was  written  decies  centena  millia  sestertiorum,  or  nummorum, 
ten  times  a  hundred  thousand  sesterces.  This  was  commonly  abbre¬ 
viated  into  decies  sestertium,  or  decies  nummum,  in  which  expressions 
centena  millia,  or  centies  millia  is  always  understood. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  value  of  the  Roman  as,  in  fede 
ral  money,  both  before  and  after  the  Punic  war,  and  of  the  largei 
coins  at  all  times 


ROMAN  MONEY - WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


311 


2 

2 

Before  536-21 
Ailer  536-4 
2 

2 

25 

10 


1.  Table  of  Roman  Money. 

Before  A.  U. 
53  6. 

D.  cts.  m. 


Teruncius  or  3  Unciae,. .  . .  3.8 

Teruncii  =  1  Sembella,.  7.7 

Sembella  =  1  As, .  1  5.4 

Asses,  =  1  Sestertius,.  3  8.6 

Sestertii  =  1  Quinarius  or 

Yictoriatus  7  7.3 

Quinarii  =  1  Denarii....  15  4.7 

Denarii  =  1  Aureus,  or 


=  Solidus,..  3  86  8.4 
Aurei  =  1  Sestertium,  38  68  4.6 


After  A.  V 
536. 

D.  cts.  in. 
2.4 
4.8 
9.6 

3  8.6 


7  7.3 
15  4.7 

3  86  8.4 
38  68  4.6 


2.  Roman  Weights. 


Troy  Weight.  Avoirdupois  W’t. 
Lbs.oz.  dwt.  grs.  Lbs.  oz.  drs. 


fheSiliqua  (equal  to  4  Cus,).. 

2.92 

0.106 

3  Siliqua 

=  1  Obolus, . 

=  1  Scrupulum,  . 

8.76 

0.320 

2  Oboli 

17.53 

0.641 

4  Scrupula 

=  1  Sextula, . 

2  22.13 

2.564 

1|  Sextula 

=  1  Siciliquus,. . . 

4 

9.19 

3.847 

lg  Siciliquus 

=  1  Duella, . 

5 

20.26 

5.129 

3  Duellse 

=  1  Uncia, . 

17 

12.79 

15.389 

12  Unciae 

=  1  Libra, . 

10  10 

9.53 

11  8.668 

The  Drachma  was  3  Scrupula. 


1 

4 


H 


2 

2 

2 

6 

4 

2 

20 


3.  Roman  Liquid  Measure. 


Ligula,  or  Cochleare, 

is  equal  to 

Galls,  qts.  pts. 

0.019 

Ligula, 

=  1  Cyathus, 

0.079 

Cyathi, 

=  1  Acetabulum, 

0.118 

Acetabula, 

=  1  Quartarius, 

0.237 

Quartarii, 

=  1  Hemina, 

0.475 

Heminae, 

=  1  Sextarius, 

0.950 

Sextarii, 

=  1  Congius, 

2  1.704 

Congii, 

=  1  Urna, 

2  3  0.819 

Urnae, 

=  1  Amphora, 

5  2  1.639 

Amphorae, 

=  1  Culeus, 

114  0  0.795 

The  Sextarius  was  divided  into  12  Uncice ,  one  of  which  was  the 
Cyathus,  equal  to  a  small  wine  glass. 


4.  Roman  Dry  Measure. 

Pks.  galls,  qts.  pts. 

1  Sextarius,  (Same  as  in  liquid  measure,)  0.950 

8  Sextarii,  =1  Semi-modius,  3  1.606 

2  Semi-modi,  =1  Modius,  1  3  1.213 

Roman  Measures  of  Length. 

The  Roman  foot ,  ( Pes ,)  like  the  as,  was  divided  into  12  uncut , 
different  numbers  of  which  were  sometimes  called  by  the  same  names 


312 


APPENDIX. 


as  those  of  the  as-,  viz:  Sextans,  quad  runs,  &c.  The  measures  less 
than  the  uncia  were  the  digitus  —  % ;  the  semiuncia  —  the  sicili- 
qnus  —  and  the  sextula  —  1- 6th  of  the  uncia;  i.  e.,  theses,  or 
foot,  contained  12  uncice,  or  16  digiti,  or  24  semiuncice ,  or  48  siciliqui, 
or  72  sextulce. 

5.  Table  of  Measures  above  aPes. 


M.  yds.  ft. 

1  Pes  =  12  Unci®,  or  16  Dig  ts, .  .97 

[5  Pes  =  1  Palmipes, .  1.21 

1^  Pes  =  1  Cubitus, .  1.45 

2%  Pedes  =  1  Pes  Sestertius, .  2.42 

5  Pedes  =  1  Passus, .  1  1.85 

125  Passus  =  1  Stadium, .  202  0.72 

8  Stadia  =  1  Milliare,  or  mile, .  1617  2.75 

6.  Table  of  Land  Measure. 

A.  roods,  poles,  sq.  ft. 

100  Pedes  quadrati,  =  1  Scrupulum,  94-23 

4  Scrupula,  =  1  Sextula,  1  104.69 

1  1-5  Sextulae  =  1  Actus  Simplex,  1  180.08 

5  Actus,  or  6  Sextulee,  =  1  Uncia,  8  83.65 

6  Unciae,  =  1  Actus  quadratus,  1  9  229.67 

2  Actus  quadrati,  =  1  Jugerum,  (As,)  2  19  187.09 

2  Jugera,  =  1  Hseredium,  1  0  39  101.83 

100  Haeredia,  =  1  Centuria,  124  2  17  109.79 

4  Centuriae,  =  1  Saltus,  498  1  29  166.91 


The  Roman  Jugerum  or  As  of  land  was  also  divided  into  12  Unciae, 
any  number  of  which  was  denominated  as  before, 

VII.  DIFFERENT  AGES  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

Of  the  Roman  literature  previous  to  A.  U.  514  scarcely  a  vestige 
remains.  The  Roman  writers  subsequent  to  that  period  have  been 
arranged  into  four  classes,  with  reference  to  the  purity  of  the  lan¬ 
guage  at  the  time  in  which  they  lived.  These  are  called  the  Golden 
age,  the  Silver  age,  the  Brazen  age,  and  the  Iron  age. 

The  Golden  age  extends  from  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war, 
A.  U.  514,  to  the  death  of  Augustus,  A.  D.  14,  a  period  of  about 
250  years.  In  that  period  Facciolatus  reckons  up  in  all  62  writers, 
of  many  of  whose  works  however  only  fragments  remain.  The  most 
distinguished  writers  of  that  period  are  Terence,  Catullus,  Caesar, 
Nepos,  Cicero,  Virgil,  Horace ,  Ovid,  Livy ,  and  Sallust. 

The  Silver  age  extends  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  death 
of  Trajan,  A.  D.  118,  a  period  of  104  years.  The  writers  who 
flourished  in  this  age  are  about  twenty-three  in  number,  of  whom 
the  most  distinguished  are  Celsus,  Villeius,  Columella,  the  Senecas, 
the  Plinies,  Juvenal,  Quintilian,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  and  Curtius. 

The  writers  of  the  Brazen  age,  extending  from  the  death  of  Tra¬ 
jan  till  Rome  was  taken  by  the  Goths,  A.  D.  410,  were  35;  the  most 
distinguished  of  whom  were  Justin,  Terentianus,  Victor,  Lactan- 
tius,  and  Claudian. 

From  this  period  commenced  the  Iron  age,  during  which  the  Latin 
language  was  much  adulterated  by  the  admixture  of  foreign  words, 

r.d  its  purity,  elegance,  and  strength  greatly  declined. 


REPORT 

On  t he  Method  of  'reaching  English  Grammar,  and  on  Text  Boo&i 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  in  the  Stale  of  New- 
York;  By  Ralph  K.  Finch,  Esq.,  Deputy  Superintendent  0/ 
Common  Schools ,  Steuben  Co. — (Assembly  Documents,  JSo.  34- 
pp.  577-589.) 

To  the  Hon  Samuel  Young,  Superintendent,  of  Common  Schools: 

SIR — I  have  endeavored  to  perform  the  task  assigned  me,  and  beg  leave  to  sub$ 
mit  the  following  remarks  on  the  method  of  teaching  English  grammar. 

I  have  not  the  vanity  to  believe  that  the  plan  here  recommended  is  the  best  that 
can  be  devised,  but  it  is  one  that  I  have  tested  in  the  school  room,  and  found  emi¬ 
nently  successful. 

I  am,  sir,  with  sentiments  of  high  esteem,  your  obt.  servant, 

R.  K.  FINCH, 

Superintendent  Common  Schools ,  Steuben  County 


REMARKS  ON  THE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In  the  study  of  English  grammar,  three  things  should  be  steadily 
kept  in  view.  „si.  To  acquire  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  princi¬ 
ples  and  facts  of  the  science.  2d.  To  become  prompt  and  expert  in 
the  application  of  these  both  in  analysis  and  composition:  and,  3d. 
By  means  of  this  to  educate  or  train  the  mental  faculties,  in  the  most 
effectual  and  profitable  manner.  The  first  of  these,  in  the  beginning 
at  least,  is  chiefly  an  exercise  of  the  memory:  the  second,  combines 
with  this  the  exercise  of  the  judgment  or  reasoning  powers;  and  it  is 
in  the  proper  direction  of  these,  that  the  skill  of  the  teacher,  aided 
by  his  text  book,  leading  the  pupil  to  think,  to  reason,  and  to  arrive 
at  conclusions  by  the  use  of  his  own  faculties,  is  required  to  effect 
the  third. 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  notice  a  subject  which  has  of  late  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  writer;  it  is  the  practice  of  committing  accu¬ 
rately  to  memory,  or  by  rote,  as  it  is  rather  ungenerously  called 
The  time  has  been,  (and  in  many  places  still  is)  when  teachers 
seemed  to  think  their  whole  duty  consisted  in  requiring  their  pupils 
to  commit  their  text  book  to  memory,  to  assign  them  their  daily 
task,  and  hear  them  recite  it  off,  parrot-like,  and  he  who  made  few¬ 
est  mistakes  was  the  best  scholar.  I  have  known  this  process  gone 
through,  not  only  with  English  grammar,  but  with  Kames,  Smellie’s 
Philosophy,  and  even  Euclid,  in  some  schools  of  high  pretensions. 
Nothing  could  be  more  preposterous  or  useless;  and  such  a  mode 
of  teaching  has  fallen  under  the  just  condemnation  of  all  sensible 
men.  But  it  appears  to  me  that  even  sensible  men  are  now  mislead¬ 
ing  the  public  min  i  into  tire  opposite  extreme;  which,  though  not 
so  absurd,  nor  so  injurious,  is  still  an  error,  and  has  a  pernicious 
influence  on  education.  Grammar,  and  every  thing  else,  many  think 
should  be  taught  by  mere  conversational  lectures,  without  requiring 
any  committing  to  memory  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  result  is. 
a  grear  deal  seems  to  be  accomplished  in  little  time.  Grammar  is 
taught  in  six  lessons,  without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  learner 
If  the  teacher  is  skilful,  the  pupils,  by  being  led  to  understand  the 
subject,  will  be  delighted,  and  suppose  they  have  acquired  a  great 


deal  But  such  acquisitions  are  like  11  morning  clouds;”  the  pupils 
have  s  arcely  left  the  teacher,  when  all  is  gone.  The  true  method, 
it  appei  rs  to  me,  is  to  combine  the  two.  “  In  medio  tutissimus  ibis” 
The  l  ading  principles  of  grammar,  (and  everything  else,)  should 
he  fixed  m  the  mind  by  being  carefully  committed  to  memory,  and 
fixed  thei  e  by  repeated  rehearsals,  and  wrought  into  the  understand¬ 
ing  by  familiar  illustrations  and  exercises.  Even  allowing  pupils 
to  give  the  sense  of  the  rule,  instead  of  the  ipsissima  verba ,  (the 
very  words,)  has  a  pernieious  eii’ect.  For  not  only  in  that  way 
does  it  fail,  generally  of  being  strictly  accurate,  but  at  every  repeti 
tion  it  will  be  given  differently,  and  thus  in  a  short  time  will  be¬ 
come  uncertain,  and  (if  I  may  use  the  expression)  chaotic;  whereas, 
if  always  repeated  in  the  same  way ,  the  connexion  of  the  words  be¬ 
comes  so  associated  in  the  mind,  and  so  firmly  lodged,  as  to  be  al¬ 
ways  there,  and  always  accurate.  Without  this,  there  may  be  a 
confused  idea  of  the  principle,  or  rule,  and  to  be  sure  of  it  the  text 
book  must  be  at  hand,  and  resorted  to — with  it,  the  principle  is  in 
delibly  fixed  in  the  mind,  always  present,  always  ready;  so  that  in 
fact  the  little  labor  expended  in  committing  accurately  to  memory, 
saves  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  inconvenience  afterwards. 

It  is  obvious,  if  these  views  are  correct,  that  for  the  attainment  of 
the  first  object  proposed  in  the  division  of  my  subject,  the  leading 
parts  of  a  text  book  containing  the  facts  and  principles  designed  to 
be  thoroughly  committed  to  memory,  should  be  brief,  accurate,  so 
expressed  as  to  be  easily  understood,  and  retained  in  the  memory, 
and  so  distinguished  from  the  subordinate  parts,  by  size  of  type,  or 
otherwise  as  to  be  manifest  on  inspection,  and  moreover  in  this  de¬ 
partment  should  be  neither  defective  nor  redundant.  To  facilitate 
the  second,  copious  and  appropriate  exercises  should  be  furnished 
at  every  step.  A  grammar  that  does  not  furnish  these,  is  essentially 
deficient  as  a  text  book.  And  to  aid  in  the  third,  the  subordinate 
parts  of  the  book  should  contain  illustrations  and  details,  sufficient 
both  for  teacher  and  pupil,  in  developing  and  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  minutiae  of  the  subject,  and  in  training  the  mind  to  habits  of 
reflecting,  reasoning  and  discriminating.  If  in  the  study  of  English 
grammar,  any  of  these  be  neglected,  the  result  will  be  a  failure. 
The  study  of  English  grammar,  in  common  schools,  should  be 
nmenced  as  soon  as  the  pupil  can  read  with  some  degree  of  ease 
i  fluency — not  sooner,  and  should  be  continued  till  the  subject  is 
■  apletely  mastered.  No  study  seems  better  adapted  to  the  capaci- 
l.  of  children,  at  this  stage,  than  this,  as  it  calls  into  action,  and  im¬ 
proves  the  memory  and  reasoning  faculties,  by  exercising  them  on 
subjects  not  too  difficult  io  be  comprehended.  The  science  of  lan¬ 
guage  as  a  branch  of  education,  is  surely  of  equal  importance  with 
the  study  of  geography  or  of  arithmetic.  As  a  means  of  disciplin 
ing  the  mind  and  improving  the  rational  powers,  it  is  far  superior 
to  the  former,  which  is  chiefly  an  exercise  of  the  memory;  and  is  at 
least  equal  to  the  latter:  and  yet  the  returns  of  the  county  superin 
tendents  for  1842,  show  an  aggregate  of  about  forty- one  thousand 
studying  geography,  sixty-four  thousand  studying  arithmetic,  and 
only  twenty-eight  thousand  studying  grammar.  This  fact  seems  to 
show  a  want  if  attention  to  this  important  study,  which  is  proba 


o 

•J 


bly  owing  to  a  general  prejudice  against  the  study,  most  people  con¬ 
sidering  it  mysterious,  difficult  and  useless.  It  is  however  a  preju¬ 
dice  only,  and  has  its  origin  not  in  the  character  of  the  study,  which, 
when  properly  conducted,  is  both  easy  and  attractive;  but,  as  I  think, 
in  the  two  following  causes.- 

1st.  It  is  owing  partly  to  the  character  of  the  text  books  employ 
ed.  These  are  tor  the  most  part,  greatly  defective  in  simplicity  and 
proper  adaptation  to  the  capacity  pf  youthful  pupils.  In  many,  the 
definitions,  rules  and  leading  facts  are  prolix,  inaccurate  and  con¬ 
fused — not  properly  distinguished  from  subordinate  matter,  and  ex¬ 
pressed  in  language  not  easy  to  be  understood.  Some  are  so  small 
and  defective  in  parts  as  to  be  insufficient  to  direct  to  a  full  know¬ 
ledge  of  the  subject,  and  so  destitute  of.  appropriate  exercises,  as 
to  render  what  they  do  contain  nearly  useless,  unless  followed  by 
something  more  full  and  complete;  and  some  are  so  large,  compli¬ 
cated,  and  burdened  with  unnecessar)r  details  as  to  appal  the  begin¬ 
ner,  and  to  render  the  prospect  of  his  ever  mastering  the  subject, 
nearly  hopeless. 

2d.  This  prejudice  is  owing,  in  no  small  degree,  perhaps  chiefly, 
to  defective  and  injudicious  modes  of  teaching. 

Some  teach,  if  teaching  it  may  be  called,  by  merely  requiring  the 
pupil  to  commit  the  text  book  to  memory,  without  any  explanations 
or  illustrations  being  given,  or  any  pains  taken  to  ascertain  whether 
the  pupil  understands  what  he  studies  or  not — the  teacher  merely 
assigns  the  task  and  hears  it  recited. 

What  is  studied  in  this  way  will  never  be  well  understood,  as  the 
memory  will  be  incumbered  with  a  mass  of  crude  materials,  the  use 
and  application  of  which  the  pupil  has  never  learned.  With  such 
learning,  it  is  impossible  he  should  be  either  pleased  or  instructed. 

Another  error,  is  the  neglect  of  repeated  reviews;  which  are  ne¬ 
cessary  to  keep  what  has  been  learned  fresh  before  the  minds  of  the 
learners — they  proceed  onward,  and  it  may  be,  are  well  taught  as 
they  go,  but  for  want  of  reviewing,  by  the  time  they  have  got  to 
the  middle  they  have  forgotten  the  beginning,  and  when  they  reach 
the  end,  but  little  more  time  is  required  to  forget  the  whole.  Com¬ 
paratively  few  make  use  of  exercises,  in  parsing  or  syntax,  conse¬ 
quently  no  opportunity  is  afforded  to  apply  the  principles  learned. 
This  indeed  must  be  the  case,  where  text  books  are  used,  which  do 
not  supply  them  sufficiently,  such  as  many  of  the  compends  now  in 
use  in  our  schools,  which  have  been  introduced  on  account  of  their 
cheapness.  In  parsing,  many  never  exercise  their  judgment  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  one  part  of  speech  from  another,  but  depend  on  the  infer 
mation  of  others,  or  perhaps  resort  to  a  dictionary. 

In  all  such  indolent  and  mechanical  processes,  there  is  no  teach¬ 
ing  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  with  much  irksome  toil  there  is 
but  little  learning  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  No  wonder  if  under 
such  a  course  of  heartless  and  unprofitable  labor,  the  study  should 
be  avoided  and  considered  dry  and  uninteresting.  A  remedy  for 
this  evil  is  much  needed,  and  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  conscientious 
active  and  skilful  teacher,  aided  by  a  good  text  book,  to  effect  it 
The  following  suggestions  respecting  the  method  of  teaching  Eng 
lish  grammar,  the  result  of  much  experience  and  observation,  wifi 


1 


it  is  believed,  if  carried  out,  go  far  to  bring  about  a  reformation  so 
desirable  in  this  branch  of  common  school  education. 

In  commencing  the  study  of  English  grammar  the  first  thing  to 
oe  attended  to  is  proper  classification.  When  a  school  term  com¬ 
mences.  care  should  be  taken,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have  all  the  pu¬ 
pils  up  at  the  beginning,  and  arrangements  made  for  their  being 
kept  steadily  at  school  till  its  close.  In  some  studies,  such  as  read¬ 
ing,  spelling,  writing,  and  even  geography,  early  and  regular  at¬ 
tendance,  though  exceedingly  desirable,  is  not  so  indispensable;  but 
in  all  studies  in  which  subsequent  parts  cannot  be  understood  with¬ 
out  a  knowledge  of  the  preceding,  unless  the  members  of  the  class 
begin  all  together,  and  continue  regular  in  their  attendance,  the 
loss  to  the  delinquents  will  be  very  great,  and  no  teacher  ought  to 
be  held  responsible  for  the  progress  of  pupils  W'hose  attendance  is 
greatly  irregular.  A  pupil  entering  a  class  in  English  grammar, 
properly  taught,  a  fortnight  or  even  a  week  after  it  begins,  will  feel 
the  loss  to  the  end,  and  is  in  danger  of  being  discouraged  by  that 
very  disadvantage.  The  same  wrill  be  the  effect  of  partial  attend¬ 
ance.  For  this  reason,  when  a  term  opens,  it  would  be  wise  to  de¬ 
lay  forming  classes  in  English  grammar,  for  a  short  time,  and  to 
give  notice  through  the  district  that  a  class  will  be  formed  on  such 
a  day,  and  that  it  is  important  for  all  who  intend  to  join  it,  to  be 
present  at  the  commencement.  Pupils  wTho  have  but  little  know¬ 
ledge  of  the  subject  would  do  well  to  begin  the  course  again,  and 
to  proceed  regularly.  The  classes  should  be  as  few  in  number  as 
possible,-  two  in  most  schools  will  be  sufficient. 

The  class  being  assembled,  the  teacher  in  a  few  remarks  should 
explain  the  nature  and  importance  of  the  study,  intimating  that  if 
properly  conducted  it  will  prove  to  be  both  pleasing  and  profitable, 
and  that  a  very  respectable  knowledge  of  it,  which  will  be  of  great 
use  in  after  life,  may  be  attained  without  a  great  deal  of  labor,  if 
due  attention  is  seriously  and  steadily  bestowed.  In  order  more 
fully  and  conveniently  to  illustrate  the  course  of  the  class,  it  will 
be  necessary  for  me  here  to  select  some  good  author  as  a  text  book. 
We  will  then  suppose  Bullions’  grammar  to  be  the  text  book  of  the 
class,  a  wTork  of  great  merit,  and  one  wffiich  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  notice  more  particularly  in  its  proper  place.*  The  first  lesson 
may  then  be  given  out,  viz:  the  definitions,  & c.,  pages  1  and  2,  to 
be  accurately  committed  to  memory,  while  the  part  in  small  print, 
containing  the  definitions  of  the  vowels,  diphthongs,  &c.  may  be 
,*ead  over  in  the  class,  commented  on  and  illustrated  by  the  teacher, 
a.  d  the  pupils  be  directed  to  read  it  carefully  by  themselves,  and 
be  in  readiness  at  the  next  recitation  to  answer  questions  respect¬ 
ing  them. 

Spelling  may,  for  the  present,  be  passed  over,  the  pupil  being 
supposed  to  have  studied  that  subject  already. 

The  next  lesson  may  be  §  3,  the  definitions,  &c.,  in  large  print 
to  be  committed  accurately  to  memory,  and  care  being  taken  by  the 
teacher,  when  giving  out  the  lesson,  to  see  that  words  needing  ex¬ 
planation  are  explained,  and  the  meaning  clearly  comprehended. 
In  order  to  illustrate  the  classification  of  wTords  under  different  heads, 

’  The  work  referred  to  is  “The  Principles  of  English  Grammar,”  See.,  pp.  216. 


4.  of  spt-ecn,  some  famiiiar  remarks  may  be  made  respect 
mg  vuaisificauou  iii  general,  and  the  principles  on  which  it  is  made; 
and  reference  may  be  made  to  natural  history,  showing  that  although 
individual  objects  are  numerous,  and  almost  infinitely  varied,  yet 
they  are  capable  of  being  arranged  in  a  few  classes,  according  to 
some  points  in  which  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  class  agree 
and  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  those  of  another  class,  as 
animals,  vegetables  and  minerals,  with  the  numerous  subdivisions 
of  each.  Or  reference  may  be  made  to  the  pupils  in  a  school,  who, 
though  numerous,  are  arranged  in  few  classes. 

In  like  manner  the  words  that  make  up  a  language,  though  very 
numerous  and  vastly  different  in  their  orthography  and  meaning, 
yet,  as  many  of  them  agree  in  certain  properties,  in  which  they  dif¬ 
fer  again  from  other  words,  they  are  capable  of  being  arranged,  and 
are  arranged  under  a  few  heads  or  classes  called  parts  of  speech . 
Some,  for  example,  are  names  of  objects;  others  are  not  names  but 
are  used  to  express  qualities  of  names,  &c.  Some  familiar  remarks 
of  this  kind,  occasionally  interspersed,  serve  not  only  to  interest  the 
pupil  and  impress  the  fact  so  illustrated  on  his  mind,  but  an  intelli¬ 
gent  and  skilful  teacher  will  by  means  of  such  illustrations  call  the 
attention  of  his  pupils  to  remarks  they  never  thought  of  before, 
though  they  have  always  been  before  their  eyes,  and  in  this  manner 
train  them  to  habits  of  reflecting,  comparing,  classifying  and  reason¬ 
ing  for  themselves.  The  pleasure  which  a  happy  illustration  gives 
to  the  pupils,  if  thereby  the  thing  illustrated  is  clearly  understood, 
will  soon  be  manifested  by  the  delight  expressed  in  their  counte¬ 
nances. 

These  definitions  being  now'  accurately  committed  to  the  memory 
and  recited,  together  with  those  from  the  beginning  of  the  book  in 
review,  the  next  lesson  may  be  §4,  in  giving  out  which,  some  re¬ 
marks  may  be  made  respecting  this  class  of  words:  that  it  is  the 
smallest  class  consisting  of  two  words  easily  remembered;  that  some 
languages  have  this  class  and  some  have  not;  the  reasons  of  the 
names  definite  and  indefinite ;  the  different  forms  of  the  indefinite 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used.  These  things  being  com¬ 
mitted  to  memory  and  wTell  understood,  the  pupils  will  forthwith 
go  through  the  exercises  on  the  article,  as  directed  in  the  text  book, 
applying  the  knowledge  they  have  already  acquired. 

They  may  then  he  directed  to  point  out  and  name  the  articles  in 
any  piece  of  composition,  and  show  their  use  in  everyplace,  telling 
why  the  definite  is  used  in  this  place  and  the  indefinite  in  that;  a  in 
one  place  and  an  in  another.  Such  exercises,  though  simple  and 
easy,  interest  the  pupil,  call  the  thoughts  into  action  and  prepare 
the  mind  for  greeter  efforts. 

Having  perfectly  mastered  this,  and  repeatedly  gone  over  all  that 
goes  before,  the  class  maybe  told  that  they  are  now  to  be  made  ac¬ 
quainted  with  a  very  large  and  important  class  of  words  cqlled 

NOUNS. 

That  this  is  the  name  sfiven  in  grammar  to  all  those  words  which 
are  names  of  things,  and  that  it  is  by  this  that  they  are  distinguish¬ 
ed  from  all  other  words;  that  every  word  which  is  the  name  of  aay 

1* 


0 


thing  we  can  see,  hear,  speak  of,  think  of,  &c.,  is  a  noun,  and  if  a 
word  is  not  the  name  of  something  it  is  not  a  noun;  that  names  are 
of  two  kinds;  that  some  names  are  common  to  things  of  the  same 
sott.  as  man ,  woman,  &c.,  and  that  others  are  appropriated  to  indi¬ 
viduals  of  a  class,  as  John,  Helen,  8c c.;  hence  nouns  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  common  and  proper.  The  character  of  a  noun 
being  thus  wrought  into  the  mind,  and  the  distinction  of  common 
and  proper  nouns  understood,  the  pupils  should  be  directed  to  reduce 
‘.heir  newly  acquired  ideas  to  practice;  to  mention  names  of  things 
which  they  see,  & c.;  and  without  hesitation  or  difficulty  will  be 
heard  such  words  as  man,  book,  tree,  house,  See.,  from  every  tongue. 
With  such  exercises  the  class  will  be  delighted,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  are  thoroughly  instructed,  and  the  idea  that  the  study  is 
dry  and  irksome  will  be  done  away.  As  a  farther  exercise  they 
may  now  try  their  skill  in  finding  out  the  nouns  in  some  piece  of 
composition.  They  will  probably  make  some  mistakes,  which  the 
teacher  will  kindly  point  out  and  show  them  how  they  were  proba¬ 
bly  made.  With  a  little  practice  this  will  become  an  easy  exercise, 
the  judgment  of  the  pupil  will  be  improved  by  applying  the  defini¬ 
tions  to  every  word  and  ranking  it  as  a  noun,  or  rejecting  it  from 
the  class  according  as  it  answers  to  the  rule  by  which  it  is  to  be 
tried,  and  there  will  be  no  need  to  resort  to  a  dictionary  or  to  a 
neighbor  to  find  out  to  what  class  such  words  as  the  above  belong. 
This,  with  review,  will  be  sufficient  for  one  or  two  recitations.* 
Having  been  made  familiar  with  this  exercise,  the  properties  of  the 
noun  will  next  be  attended  to;  but  one  at  a  time. 

As  person,  properly  speaking,  is  not  so  much  a  property  of  a 
noun  as  a  mode  of  using  it  in  speech — the  same  noun,  without 
change  of  form  or  meaning,  being  of  the  first  person  according  to 
one  mode  of  using  it — of  the  second,  according  to  another,  and  of 
the  third,  according  to  another,  nothing  more  need  be  said  of  it  than 
is  contained  in  §  6,  till  the  pupil  comes  to  the  first  rule  of  syntax. 

The  next  property  to  be  considered  is  gender.  It  may  be  remark¬ 
ed  to  the  class,  that  nouns  are  divided  into  three  classes,  according 
to  their  relation  to  sex;  those  denoting  males  being  called  mascu¬ 
line,  those  denoting  females,  feminine,  and  those  denoting  neither 
males  nor  females,  neuter  or  neuter  gender,  and  this  illustrated  by 
proper  examples.  The  teacher  may  then  remark  on  the  simplicity 
and  beauty  of  the  English  language,  above  almost  any  other,  and 
as  before,  the  pupil  will  now  be  desirous  of  applying  liis  knowledge, 
by  telling  the  gender  of  every  noun  he  sees,  in  which,  of  course,  he 
should  be  indulged. 

Next  proceed  to  'number.  Explain  the  distinction  of  singular  and 
plural;  cause  the  rules  for  forming  the  plural  to  be  accurately  com¬ 
mitted  to  memory,  and  then  apply  them  by  forming  the  plural  of  the 
list  of  nouns,  page  13,  giving  the  rule  for  each  plural  formed;  thus, 
fox ,  plu ..  foxes.  “  Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  ch,  x  or  o,  form  the  plu¬ 
ral  hy  adding  es.  Book,  plu.  hooks.”  “The  plural  is  commonly 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular,”  See.  By  repeating  the  rules  in 
this  manner,  every  time,  they  will  be  committed  to  memory  with 

*  A  class  should  never  be  tasked  with  more  than  what  they  can  master  with 
« la  better  to  err  by  giving  too  Liuie  titan  too  much.  Festina  lente. 


7 


little  labor,  and  be  indelibly  fixed  there.  The  3d  paragraph  in  thrs 
list  of  exercises  to  be  used  thus:  “  book”  is  singular  because  it  de¬ 
notes  one,  p!u.  books,  and  give  the  rule.  11  Trees  plu.  because  it 
denotes  more  than  one;  singular,  tree,  &c.  So  of  the  rest.  §§  9 
and  10  except  the  first  part  of  §9,  maybe  passed  over  until  the 
grammar  is  reviewed. 

This  being  well  understood,  and  the  reviews  of  preceding  parts 
kept  up  daiiy,  next  proceed  in  the  same  way  with  case,  §  11,  ex¬ 
plaining  the  meaning  of  the  term,  and  requiring  the  definitions,  in 
large  print,  to  be  carefully  committed  to  memory.  As  the  nomina¬ 
tive  and  objective  cases  of  nouns  are  of  the  same  form,  and  can  be 
distinguished  only  by  their  use  in  a  sentence,  which  the  pupil  is  not 
prepared  to  analyze,  he  should  not  be  troubled  with  this  distinction 
till  he  comes  to  pages  47  and  48.  The  possessive  having  always 
the  apostrophe,  is  easily  distinguished.  The  method  of  using  the 
exercises  on  gender,  number  and  case,  page  18,  is  sufficiently  ex¬ 
plained  in  the  note.  This  exercise  being  wdiat  is  called  parsing  a 
noun,  should  be  continued  until  the  w7hole  class  are  expert  in  it.  In 
all  this  process  the  pupils  should  be  kept  lively,  and  caused  to  go 
through  these  exercises  rapidly  as  well  as  accurately.  By  so  doing, 
a  great  deal  can  be  done  in  a  little  time,  and  the  mind  kept  under 
sufficient  excitement  to  render  it  susceptible  of  deep  impression. 

By  proceeding  in  this  way,  slowly  but  surely,  thoroughly  dispos¬ 
ing  of  one  part  before  proceeding  to  another,  keeping  the  whole 
fresh  in  the  mind  from  the  beginning,  or  as  far  back  as  the  teacher 
may  deem  proper,  drilling  repeatedly  on  the  exercises,  and  applying 
the  rules  wThere  rules  are  applicable,  every  thing  belonging  to  the 
etymology  of  nouns,  will  be  so  famiiiar,  so  well  understood,  and  so 
firmly  riveted  in  the  mind,  that  no  farther  trouble  need  be  appre¬ 
hended,  and  the  class  may  now  proceed  to  the 

ADJECTIVE. 

This  part  of  speech  being  indeclinable  in  English,  and  having 
only  the  accident  of  comparison ,  all  that  is  necessary  here  is  to  com¬ 
mit  the  definitions,  and  rules  for  comparison,  and  apply  them.  Con¬ 
nected  with  the  definition,  the  main  thing  the  teacher  has  to  do,  is 
to  teach  the  pupil  how  to  distinguish  this  part  of  speech  from  any 
other.  It  alw'ays  describes  a  noun  or  pronoun,  by  expressing  some 
quality  or  property  belonging  to  it,  and  is  generally  placed  before 
the  word  which  it  qualifies.  Examples  wrill  best  illustrate  this,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  pupil  may  be  directed  to  point  out  the  adjectives 
in  the  exercises,  or  in  any  piece  of  composition  that  may  be  at  hand. 
When  the  idea  of  an  adjective  is  once  wrought  into  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  he  w7ill  not  find  much  difficulty  in  distinguishing  it  from  other 
parts  of  speech;  and  as  a  pleasing  exercise  the  whole  class  may 
have  it  assigned  them  as  a  lesson,  on  a  slate  or  on  paper,  at  school 
or  at  home,  as  may  be  thought  best,  to  write  all  the  adjectives  in  a 
given  paragraph  or  page,  with  the  nouns  they  qualify  opposite  them 
As  a  technical  w7ay  of  assisting  young  children  in  this  exercise, 
they  may  be  told  that  any  w7ord,  (the  possessive  case  of  nouns  ex 
cepted)  which  makes  sense  with  the  word  thing  after  it,  is  an  ad 
jective;  as.  A  good  thing;  a  bad  thing.  As  a  farther  exercise,  the 


8 


teacher  may  give  the  class  a  number  of  nouns  to  write  in  a  column, 
on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  slate  and  ask  them  to  write  down,  on 
the  same  line,  ail  the  adjectives  they  can  think  of,  which  will  prop¬ 
erly  describe  that  noun,  thus,  black,  white,  dapple,  bay,  fat,  lean, 
See.  horse.  Or  he  may  reverse  this  process,  and  give  them  a  few 
adjectives  to  write  in  a  column,  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  slate 
and  ask  them  to  write  on  the  right  of  each,  on  the  same  line,  as  many 
nouns  as  they  can  think  of,  to  which  the  adjective  will  apply:  thus, 
beautiful ,  trees,  houses,  garden,  flower,  woman,  child,  &c.  In  this 
way  an  industrious  and  ingenious  teacher  may  exercise  and  interest 
the  minds  of  his  pupils,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  acquainted  with  only 
two  or  three  parts  of  speech,  he  may  begin  with  these  to  teach  them 
the  art  of  composition  as  well  as  of  analysis. 

PRONOUNS. 

The  pronouns  are  so  lew  in  number,  that  all  necessary  to  be  done, 
is  to  commit  to  memory  the  names  of  the  different  classes,  and  the 
pronouns  under  each.  This  can  be  accurately  done  with  little  labor. 
The  teacher,  however,  as  elsewhere,  by  oral  and  familiar  instruc¬ 
tion,  has  something  to  do  to  explain,  illustrate  and  distinguish,  in 
which  he  will  be  assisted  by  the  notes  and  observations  interspersed 
through  the  grammar,  remembering  always  to  go  back,  and  keep 
all  fresh,  by  repeated  rehearsals  or  reviews ;  an  exercise  which  will 
be  easy,  and  therefore  pleasant,  unless  too  much  neglected.  Here, 
as  in  the  preceding,  the  pupil  must  reduce  his  newly  acquired  know¬ 
ledge  to  practice.  Page  28  will  furnish  him  with  suitable  exercises. 

THE  VERB. 

The  first  lesson  on  this  part  of  grammar  should  be  prefaced  with 
some  familiar  remarks  respecting  this  part  of  speech;  as,  that  it  is 
the  most  important  class  of  words;  that  we  cannot  speak  or  write  a 
sentence  without  a  verb  in  some  form;  that  it  assumes  more  forms 
and  is  used  in  a  greater  variety  of  ways  than  any  other  part  of 
speech.  Hence  its  name,  verb,  the  zvord,  emphatically  the  word. 
It  is  therefore  the  more  important  that  it  should  be  thoroughly  stud¬ 
ied  and  understood;  and  that  though  it  is  the  most  difficult  part  of 
speech  to  master,  yet  with  a  little  diligence  and  attention  on  their 
part,  they  may  become  as  well  acquainted  with  it  as  with  any  other. 

The  pupils  may  be  directed  to  commit  the  definitions  as  their  first 
lesson,  or  such  portion  of  them  as  can  be  thoroughly  mastered,  and 
to  proceed  in  the  way  above  mentioned  with  §§  20,  21,  22,  23.  Or 
those  in  §§  22  and  23,  as  well  as  24,  may  be  omitted  for  the  present, 
and  the  class  proceed  from  §  21  to  25  and  26;  and  while  this  process 
of  committing  is  going  on,  the  teacher  should  make  use  of  the  text 
to  illustrate  in  a  familiar  way  the  meaning  and  distinguishing  cha¬ 
racter  of  this  part  of  speech.  As  a  technical  test  young  pupils 
may  be  informed  that  a  word  that  makes  sense  with  I  or  he  before 
it,  is  a  verb.  Those  of  more  mature  judgment  will  not  stand  in 
need  of  such  aid.  He  should  also  point  out  the  meaning  of  the 
terms  transitive  and  intransitive  and  the  distinction  between  the 
verbs  so  called  This  distinction  it  is  important  that  the  popil 
should  understand  and  be  able  to  make  accurately  and  promptly. 


This  can  easily  be  made  plain  even  to  very  young  children,  by 
means  of  tne  directions  given  in  section  19;  but  as  children  do  not 
so  readily  comprehend  what  they  read  as  what  is  told  them  in  a 
plain  and  familiar  manner,  a  little  pains  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
here  will  be  well  rewarded.  The  pupil  may  then  be  exercised  in 
making  this  distinction,  first  in  very  short  and  simple  sentences,  such 
as  those  at  page  47,  second  paragraph,  and  afterwards  on  longer 
ones.  The  formula  of  the  verb  must  next  be  accurately  committed 
to  memory,  and  the  pupils  exercised  in  repeating  it  in  every  way 
that  can  be  thought  of,  till  they  can  do  it  accurately,  beginning  at 
once  and  going  through  any  mood  or  tense  that  may  be  named,  and 
tell  at  once  and  without  hesitation  in  what  part,  i.  e.,  in  what 
voice,  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  any  part  that  may  be  nam 
ed  is.  It  will  greatly  facilitate  this,  to  teach  the  pupil  to  distinguish 
the  tenses  by  their  signs,  and  to  be  ready  at  once  to  tell  the  sign  of 
each  tense  that  may  be  named.  Thus:  what  are  the  signs  of  the 
perfect  indicative  ?  Ans.  Have,  hast,  hath  or  has.  Of  the  pluper¬ 
fect?  Ans.  Had,  hadst,  &c.  The  active  voice  of  the  verb  11  to  love” 
being  thus  completely  mastered,  (and  until  this  is  done  a  step  be 
yond  should  not  be  taken,)  the  class  may  be  drilled  in  the  exercises, 
pages  47  and  48,  according  to  the  directions  there  given.  This  be¬ 
ing  done,  proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  verb  u  to  be,”  and  the 
passive  voice  of  the  verb  “  to  love,”  which  will  now  be  accom¬ 
plished  with  the  greatest  ease  in  a  fourth  part  of  the  time  that  was 
required  to  commit  the  active  voice.  The  class  should  then  be  thor¬ 
oughly  drilled  in  the  exercises,  pages  51,  52,  and  56.  At  a  subse¬ 
quent  period,  it  should  be  required  to  conjugate  the  irregular  verbs, 
§  32,  going  through  them  at  the  rate  of  a  page  or  a  half  page  per 
diem,  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils. 

The  definitions  of  the  adverb,  preposition,  conjunction  and  inter¬ 
jection,  are  next  to  be  acquired,  which  requires  no  special  notice, 
only  that,  as  the  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  few  in  number, 
it  may  be  as  well  to  commit  them  to  memory,  as  it  is  not  easy  for 
young  persons  to  distinguish  them  from  other  words  by  their  defini¬ 
tions  or  use. 

This  brings  the  pupil  through  etymology,  and  with  ordinary  dili¬ 
gence  it  may  all  be  thoroughly  done  in  five  or  six  weeks,  if  the 
teacher  takes  pains  to  keep  the  attention  of  his  pupils  awake,  and 
to  prevent  their  falling  into  a  state  of  mental  indolence — a  state  of 
mind  in  which  little  benefit  is  derived  from  the  best  instruction 

PARSING. 

The  class  is  now  prepared  for  parsing  etymologically  in  simple 
sentences  promiscuously,  and  should  be  drilled  for  some  time  in  this 
exercise,  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  expert  in  applying  the 
knowledge  previously  gained,  in  distinguishing  the  different  parts  of 
speech  as  they  occur  promiscuously  in  a  sentence,  and  enabling^  them 
to  tell  readily  their  accidents  or  properties,  using  always  the  fewest 
words  possible,  and  stating  them  always  in  the  same  way.  Section 
40  furnishes  exercises  for  this  purpose,  and  general  directions  are 
there  given,  which  will  be  found  very  useful  to  the  student.  In  this 
exercise,  the  class  may  be  properly  exercised  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
and  m  the  mean  time  the  previous  part  oi  the  grammar  should  be 


gone  over  two  or  three  times  in  review, — first  in  short  portions  and 
then  in  longer, — till  the  whole  becomes  so  familiar  that  farther  at 
tendon  is  unnecessary.  By  this  time  the  class  will  be  prepared  to 
snter  with  ease,  spirit  and  intelligence,  on  the  next  part,  namely, 

SYNTAX. 

Here  they  may  be  told  that  hitherto  they  have  been  learning  chiefly 
the  character,  forms,  and  changes  of  words,  and  analyzing  sentences 
containing  them.  That  they  are  now  to  be  taught  how  to  put  words 
together  in  a  proper  manner,  according  to  approved  rules  and  me¬ 
thods.  The  part  of  grammar  which  teaches  to  do  this  is  called  syn¬ 
tax;  a  word  that  signifies  combining  or  arranging  together,  viz: 
words  in  a  sentence.  After  acquiring  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
definitions  and  general  principles,  §§  43.  44,  and  45,  the  next  lesson 
may  be  Rule  I.,  §  46.  No  particular  effort  is  required  in  commit¬ 
ting  either  this  or  the  following  rules  to  memory.  The  simple  re¬ 
petition  of  them  from  the  book,  as  each  sentence  in  the  exercises 
under  the  rule  is  corrected,  will  generally  be  sufficient.  Or  they 
may  have  two  or  three  rules  assigned  them  to  commit  daily,  so  as  in 
this  exercise  to  keep  in  advance  of  the  other. 

It  will  be  necessary  in  entering  on  the  exercises,  to  point  out  to 
the  pupil  the  precise  object  of  each  rule,  as  he  advances;  to  intimate 
that  the  exercises  contain  violations  of  that  rule  only;  that  his  busi¬ 
ness  is  to  find  out,  in  each  sentence,  what  is  contrary  to  the  rule 
and  to  alter  it  accordingly.  Under  the  first  rule,  for  example,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  remind  the  pupil  that  every  sentence  contains 
at  least  one  distinct  affirmation;  that  the  verb  is  the  word  which 
makes  the  affirmation;  and  that  the  person  or  thing  of  which  the 
verb  affirms  is  its  subject  or  nominative;  and  that  according  to  the 
rule  these  must  always  agree  in  number  and  person;  i.  e.,  the  verb 
must  be  in  the  same  number  and  person  with  the  nominative.  Un¬ 
der  Rule  I.,  then,  the  business  in  each  sentence  is  to  find  the  verb  and 
the  nominative,  in  order  to  compare  them  and  see  if  they  agree,  and 
if  they  do  not,  to  alter  the  verb  so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  its  nom 
inative.  In  order  to  discover  the  verb  and  its  nominative,  the  pupil 
maybe  directed  to  read  the  sentence  and  see  what  it  means;  he  may 
then  be  asked,  (having  read  the  first  sentence,  e.  g.,  “I  loves  read¬ 
ing,”)  what  is  spoken  of?  Answer.  I.  What  is  said  of  I,  or  what 
is  I  said  to  do  ?  Answer.  I  loves.  Then  loves  is  the  verb  and  I  its 
nominative:  compare  them  and  see  if  they  are  in  the  same  number 
and  person.  Nominative  I  is  the  first  person,  and  loves  is  the  third 
person;  loves-  then  should  be  love,  to  agree  with  I  in  the  first  per¬ 
son.  Or  the  teacher  may  proceed  Socratically  as  follows: 

Teacher  Read  the  first  sentence.  Pupil.  “  I  loves  reading.” 
T .  Who  or  wrhat  is  spoken  of  here  ?  P.  I.  T.  What  is  1  said  to 
do?  P.  To  love.  T.  Then  which  word  expresses  the  person  spok¬ 
en  of?  P.  I  is  the  person  spoken  of,  and  is  therefore  the  nomina¬ 
tive.  T .  To  what  verb  is  I  the  nominative?  P.  To  the  verb  loves. 
T.  In  what  should  they  agree  according  to  the  rule?  P.  In  num¬ 
ber  and  person.  T.  Do  they  so  agree?  P.  No.  7  is  the  first  per¬ 
son  singular,  and  loves  is  the  third.  T.  What  must  be  done  to 
make  them  agree?  P.  Change  loves  to  love.  T.  Read  the  sen- 


tei/ce  so  corrected,  and  trice  the  rule?  P.  I  love  reading.  ct  A  verb 
agrees,”  i\,c. 

Having  gone  through  all  the  exercises  under  this  rule,  in  this  wav 
or  in  any  other  way  the  teacher  may  find  best  calculated  to  comma 
nicate  the  idea,  they  may  begin  again  and  go  over  the  whole  with¬ 
out  being  questioned;  thus,  loves  should  be  love  in  the  first  persoD 
and  singular  number,  because  I,  its  nominative,  is  in  the  first  per¬ 
son  and  singular  number,  u  A  verb  must  agree,”  &c.  After  this  the 
whole  may  be  read  over  by  the  pupils,  each  reading  a  sentence,  and 
only  marking  the  corrected  word  with  greater  emphasis;  thus,  “  I 
love  reading;”  “  a  soft  answer  turns  awajr  wrath.”  &c.,  giving  the 
rule  as  before;  in  this  way  a  class  will  easily  proceed  at  the  rate  of 
one  rule  a  day,  reviewing  the  preceding  as  before.  Every  part  be¬ 
ing  thoroughly  understood  as  they  proceed,  they  will  take  pleasure 
in  it,  their  perception  and  power  of  reasoning  will  every  day  ex¬ 
pand  and  become  more  vigorous,  and  at  the  end  of  the  course  their 
improvement  will  be  astonishing  to  themselves. 

After  going  through  the  ru'es  of  syntax,  a  farther  advance  and 
exercise  of  the  powers  of  the  pupils  will  be  found  in  Syntactical 
parsing,  sufficiently  explained  in  §  84,  and  in  the  promiscuous  exer¬ 
cises  in  §  85,  all  of  which,  being  corrected,  may  be  used  for  exercises 
in  syntactical  parsing,  which  should  be  followed  up  by  parsing  the 
best  authors,  both  in  prose  and  poetry,  while  they  should  at  the 
same  time  be  carried  through  the  subsequent  parts  of  the  grammar. 

As  soon  as  a  class  gets  through  the  rules  of  syntax,  they  should 
be  instructed  in  short  and  simple  exercises  in  composition.  By  so 
doing  they  will  furnish  exercises  for  themselves,  and  should  be  led 
to  correct  their  own  mistakes,  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  cor 
rected  the  exercises  under  the  rules. 

TEXT  BOOKS. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  attempt  an  elaborate  review  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  "works  on  this  subject,  as  the  discussion  would  extend  these  re¬ 
marks,  (which  are  already  too  prolix,)  to  an  inconvenient  length. 
Authors  can  generally  set  forth  the  merits  of  their  own  productions, 
and  they  seldom  fail  to  exhibit  the  faults  and  defects  of  rival  works, 
with  peculiar  acumen,  and  with  eloquence  hardly  to  be  expected 
from  persons  less  interested.  It  is  therefore  not  probable  that  any 
literary  production  of  even  moderate  pretensions,  will  escape  with 
out  a  little  wholesome  criticism. 

Early  in  the  year  1842,  wishing  to  select  some  work  on  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  English  grammar  which  I  could  recommend  as  a  text  book 
to  the  schools  under  my  superintendency;  I  collected  all  the  works 
on  the  subject  which  seemed  to  have  any  considerable  claims  to  con¬ 
sideration,  in  order  to  make  a  comparison  of  their  respective  merits. 
A  cursory  examination  was  sufficient  to  induce  me  to  throw  aside 
several  as  materially  defective  and  unsuitable,  but  I  retained  upon 
my  table  for  a  more  thorough  inspection  those  of  Kirkham,  Hazen, 
Pierce,  Brown  and  Bullions.  After  a  patient  and  protracted  exami 
nation,  the  first  three  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  mentioned  above 
for  reasons  which  it  would  be  too  tedious  to  mention,  were  laid 
aside  Being  satisfied  of  the  eminent  merits  of  the  works  of 


Bullions  and  Brown,  and  certain  that  I  should  make  choice  of  one  of 
them  for  the  purpose  I  had  in  view,  I  reserved  them  for  a  carefu. 
comparison,  not  with  a  view  to  ascertain  their  intrinsic  value,  of 
which  I  was  already  satisfied,  it  having  been  the  object  of  my  first 
and  second  perusal,  but  that  I  might  determine  which  would  be  the 
most  suitable  for  general  use  in  our  common  schools.  Having  made 
Ihe  comparison  with  as  much  candor  and  ability  as  I  could  bring  to 
the  task,  I  came  to  the  following  conclusion:  that  as  treatises  on 
grammar  the  works  were  of  nearly  equal  merits,  that  of  Brown 
being  somewhat  more  copious  in  its  exercises  and  full  and  argu¬ 
mentative  in  its  notes  and  observations  on  the  language,  while  Bull¬ 
ions’  is  far  superior  to  the  former  in  conciseness  and  simplicity  of 
style  and  in  clearness  of  arrangement.  The  rules  are  well  express¬ 
ed  and  the  principles  clearly  developed,  while  the  notes  and  philo¬ 
sophical  observations  are  fully  sufficient,  without  that  redundancy 
which  characterizes  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  grammar  of  Mr. 
Brown,  and  increases  its  volume  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it 
truly  appalling  to  beginners. 

The  grammar  of  Dr.  Bullions  has  also  the  advantage  of  being 
suitable  for  young  students  and  those  commencing  the  study,  thus 
saving  the  expense  of  a  “first  hook”  or  “first  lines,”  while  at. 
the  same  time  it  is  a  complete  grammar  of  the  language,  and  avail¬ 
able  for  every  purpose  for  which  Mr.  Brown’s  can  possibly  be  used. 
It  is  also  one  of  a  “  series;”  and  a  pupil  having  studied  it,  can  take 
up  the  grammars  of  the  Latin  and  Greek,  by  the  same  excellent 
author,  in  which  the  rules  and  arrangements,  so  far  as  the  princi¬ 
ples  and  analogies  of  the  language  will  admit,  are  the  same,  and 
proceed  with  a  facility  under  other  circumstances  not  attainable. 
This  is  a  consideration  of  no  small  importance  to  those  who  may 
wish  to  advance  from  the  common  school  to  the  academy  and  the 
college.  But  I  cannot  here  set  forth  all  that  influenced  my  mind 
in  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  grammar  of  Dr.  Bullions  was 
superior  to  any  other  I  had  examined  as  a  text  book  for  use  in  our 
common  schools.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  I  recommended  it  for  use 
in  the  schools  in  this  county. 

Since  the  subject  of  these  observations  was  assigned  me  by  the 
Department,  I  have  made  another  investigation,  and  come  to  the 
same  conclusion. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

R.  K.  FINCH, 

Sup.  of  Com.  Schools  for  the  Co.  of  Steuben 
Bath,  Nov.  5,  1843. 


Just  published,  by  Pratt,  Woodford  &  Co. 

N.  Y.,  (late  Robinson,  Pratt  8c  Co.,)  “Practical  Lessons  oi« 
English  Grammar  and  Composition;  for  Young  Beginners:  ”  pp.  132 
BvRf.v  P  Bullions,  D.  D. 


1 


: 

. 


'•  • 


!  1 

* 


i 


-  » 


* 


* 


*• 

* 


. 


t 


» 


3  0112  055463407 


s"'?4s*^S 


W1R 


W.-X  T  •  Of  J 


i^KijSsg 

■M 

HH 


